Figure 1
Systematic Literature Review Article Selection Process using PRISMA.
Figure 2
Number of Publications in Online Engineering Education by Year.
Table 1
Distribution of Country Affiliations of First Author.
| # | COUNTRY | FREQUENCY | PERCENTAGE (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 21 | 53.9 |
| 2 | Spain | 5 | 12.8 |
| 3 | Australia | 2 | 5.1 |
| 4 | Greece | 1 | 2.6 |
| 5 | Japan | 1 | 2.6 |
| 6 | Ireland | 1 | 2.6 |
| 7 | Malaysia | 1 | 2.6 |
| 8 | Morocco | 1 | 2.6 |
| 9 | Portugal | 1 | 2.6 |
| 10 | Romania | 1 | 2.6 |
| 11 | Germany | 1 | 2.6 |
| 12 | Turkey | 1 | 2.6 |
| 13 | United Arab Emirates | 1 | 2.6 |
| 14 | Canada | 1 | 2.6 |
Table 2
Disciplines and courses of sampled articles.
| # | PROGRAMS | N | % | COURSES |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Mechanical Engineering | 4 | 13.3 | - Computer Aided Engineering - Engineering Dynamics - Introduction to Natural Sciences - Strength of Materials - Thermodynamics |
| 2 | Computer and Telecommunications Engineering | 4 | 13.3 | - Cognitive Network Design* - Digital Design - Mathematical Analysis - Mathematics II |
| 3 | Engineering Management | 3 | 10.0 | - Operations Management* - Technology Planning and Management* |
| 4 | First-year Engineering | 2 | 6.7 | - Support Program in Mathematics |
| 5 | Systems and Control Engineering | 2 | 6.7 | - All courses program-wide* - Lab Practices on Instrument. and Control* |
| 6 | Aerospace Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - Mechanics of Materials |
| 7 | Chemical Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - Core Chemistry Concepts I* - Core Chemistry Concepts II* |
| 8 | Computer Science | 1 | 3.3 | - Operating Systems - Signals and Systems |
| 9 | Computing, Engineering, and Management of Information Systems | 1 | 3.3 | - Courses not indicated |
| 10 | Electrical and Computer Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - Electrical Circuits - Introduction to Electrical Laboratory |
| 11 | Engineering Science | 1 | 3.3 | - Learning from Engineering Disasters |
| 12 | Informatics Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - Software Development Laboratory |
| 13 | Manufacturing Systems Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - All courses program-wide* |
| 14 | Marine Engineering | 1 | 3.3 | - English Academic Course for Engineering |
| 15 | Program Not Indicated | 6 | 20.0 | - Economic Decision Making* - Effectiveness in Technical Organizations* - Info. Management and Data Engineering - Intercultural Engineering - Thermoelectricity* - Product Data Management |
[i] Note: * Denotes graduate courses.
Table 3
Theoretical frameworks used in sampled articles.
| # | FRAMEWORK(S) | REFERENCE ARTICLE |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Backward design, Bloom’s taxonomy | Chatterjee et al. 2016 |
| 2 | Community of Inquiry (CoI) Model | Rutz & Ehrlich 2016 |
| 3 | Constructivism | Minichiello et al. 2013 |
| 4 | Inquiry-based Learning | Uribe et al. 2016 |
| 5 | Social Influence Theory | Schutz et al. 2018 |
| 6 | Systems Engineering-based Framework | Bozkurt & Helm 2013 |
| 7 | Trifecta of Engagement | Fu 2019 |
| 8 | Skills in e-learning courses | Levy & Ramim 2017 |
| 9 | Bloom’s taxonomy | Pamplona et al. 2018 |
| 10 | Motivational frameworks (expectancy x value theory, four phase model of interest, multiple goals model) | Cooper et al. 2020 |
| 11 | Self and co-regulation of learning | Pedrosa et al. 2020 |
| 12 | Problem based learning | Andersson & Logofatu 2018 |
| 13 | Kolb learning styles | Mansor & Ismail 2012 |
| 14 | Self-regulation theory | Sancho-Vinuesa et al. 2018 |
| 15 | Theories of formative assessment | Lawton et al. 2012 |
Table 4
Research foci and research approach in sampled articles.
| # | RESEARCH FOCI | N | % | RESEARCH METHODS | N | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Literature review | 5 | 12.8 | No research (descriptive) | 5 | 12.8 |
| 2 | Course description | 13 | 33.3 | No research (descriptive) | 3 | 7.7 |
| Qualitative | 2 | 5.1 | ||||
| Quantitative | 4 | 10.3 | ||||
| Qualitative and quantitative | 4 | 10.3 | ||||
| 3 | Intervention description | 12 | 30.8 | No research (descriptive) | 1 | 2.6 |
| Qualitative | 1 | 2.6 | ||||
| Quantitative | 4 | 10.3 | ||||
| Qualitative and quantitative | 6 | 15.4 | ||||
| 4 | Program description | 2 | 5.1 | No research (descriptive) | 2 | 5.1 |
| 5 | Fundamental research | 7 | 17.9 | Quantitative | 5 | 12.8 |
| Qualitative and quantitative | 2 | 5.1 |
Table 5
Distribution of study populations in sampled articles.
| STUDY POPULATION | N | % | STUDY SUBPOPULATION | N | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Students | 24 | 61.5 | Undergraduate only | 12 | 50.0 |
| Graduate only | 5 | 20.8 | |||
| Undergraduate and graduate | 3 | 12.5 | |||
| Employees in workforce | 1 | 4.2 | |||
| Unknown | 3 | 12.5 | |||
| Instructors | 2 | 5.1 | – | ||
| Institutions | 2 | 5.1 | – | ||
| Not applicable (not research; descriptive) | 11 | 28.2 | – |
Table 6
Sampling methods and sample sizes by research foci.
| RESEARCH FOCI | N | % | SAMPLING METHOD | N | % | SAMPLE SIZE: RANGE (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Course description | 10 | 25.6 | One course | 9 | 90.0 | 10–175 |
| Multiple courses | 1 | 10.0 | (35) | |||
| Intervention description | 11 | 28.2 | One course | 9 | 71.8 | 1–2,047 |
| Multiple courses | 2 | 18.2 | (25) | |||
| Fundamental research | 7 | 17.9 | Multiple courses | 2 | 28.6 | 46–5,000 |
| Multiple institutions | 5 | 71.4 | (136) | |||
| Not applicable (not research; descriptive) | 11 | 28.2 |
Table 7
Distribution of sampled articles based on thematic classification.
| THEMES | DEFINITION | CODES | N |
|---|---|---|---|
| Content design and delivery | Topics related to content design of online courses, pedagogies implemented in online format, and the delivery of educational content online through different formats. These online courses could be fundamental and/or laboratory courses in online engineering. | - class design and structure - content delivery - laboratory design - pedagogical considerations | 21 |
| Student engagement and interactions | Topics describing student engagement throughout the course, interactions between students, interactions between students and instructors, and interactions of students with the course content in online engineering courses. | - engagement - learning technology | 6 |
| Assessment | Topics related to course assessments including quizzes, assignments, exams, projects, etc. in online engineering courses. Other topics include assessment of students’ conceptual knowledge, misconceptions, and academic misconducts in online engineering courses/programs. | - student learning assessment - course assessment - evaluation | 8 |
| Feedback | Topics related to different types of feedback including feedback from the instructor to students using different approaches (e.g., text-based, interactive, or automated feedback), and student feedback about the instructor’s teaching approaches and the overall course. | - student feedback - instructor feedback | 5 |
| Challenges in online engineering | Topics that discuss challenges related to time management, technical issues, enrollment, retention, or persistence in online engineering courses/programs. | - time challenges - technical challenges - attrition or enrollment | 9 |
Figure 3
Frequency of occurrence of themes across the years.
| CODE | DESCRIPTION | EXEMPLAR |
|---|---|---|
| Assessment | Topics related to course assessments including quizzes, assignments, exams, projects, etc. in online engineering courses. Other topics include assessment of students’ conceptual knowledge, misconceptions, and academic misconducts in online engineering courses/programs. | “Student Assessment of Learning Gains survey” (Halada 2017) |
| Feedback | Topics related to different types of feedback including the feedback provided by the instructor to students using different approaches such as text-based, interactive, or automated feedback, student feedback about the instructor’s teaching approaches and the overall course. | “The first investigation was completed during the 2013–2014 academic year and included 40 students. During the first half of the semester students received text-based feedback on their written assignments (this method had been used by the instructor for the previous five years). During the second half of the semester, students received interactive feedback on their written assignments. In all cases the feedback was provided to the students via the university’s leaning management system.” (Rutz & Ehrlich 2016) |
| Attrition or Enrollment | Topics referring to student enrollment, dropout, and attrition in online education. | “Actively participating students seems to be one of the success factors for avoiding dropouts in online courses as well as a strong sense of responsibility and community with the group.” (Andersson & Logofatu 2018) |
| Class Design or Structure | Topics related to overall class design such as topics being covered, targeted academic level, and projects. | “The digital systems course was a 15- week lecture online course that covered Boolean algebra, logic gates, combinational logic, minimization, number systems, MSI devices, sequential circuits, finite state machines, memory and programmable logic devices, and FPGA technology.” (Avanzato 2017) |
| Content Delivery | Topics related to the delivery of course content online such as through lecture videos | “An online version of the class consisting of topical videos of the lecture, on-line quizzes and homework, and assessments could 1) facilitate self-study and -pacing of the material on part of students, 2) enable problem solving and critical discussion between students and instructors using an online forum, and 3) scale-up the class to reach a large number of students.” (Purwar & Scott 2019) |
| Engagement | Topics describing course engagement throughout the course (engagement with the course, peers, the instructor, etc.) | “Various approaches are adopted to improve student participation, such as integration of quizzes in the instructional lectures, use of discussion boards, and offering synchronous review sessions.” (Fatehiboroujeni, Qattawi, & Goyal 2019) |
| Laboratory Design | Topics related to developing online laboratories and simulations to mimic in-person hands-on experiences | “It was found at the colloquy that, surprisingly, common there was no clear and definition among engineering educators of what exactly the objectives of laboratory experimentation are. So, the teaching of laboratory experience online could not even be addressed without first defining what those objectives are for onsite laboratory experiments.” (Badjou & Dahmani 2013) |
| Learning Technology | Topics related to a specific implementation of a technology for the course but not limited to learning management systems (LMS) like Blackboard or Canvas | “Panopto Focus” (Astatke & Scott 2011); “Moodle” (Pedrosa et al. 2020) |
| Pedagogical Considerations | Topics regarding specific pedagogies and instructional practices that engineering educators are implementing in the online format | “This study focuses on using problem-based learning in online lab classes for mechanical engineering students” (Andersson & Logofatu 2018) |
| Recommendations | Strategies and recommendations for enhancing the online experiences of students and instructors | “Keep Videos Short” (Pohl & Walters 2015) |
| Technical Challenges | Topics describing technical challenges encountered by students or instructors in the online course | “Technical Complaints: In topic 2, on March 23rd, a student reported that an API registration was missing from the repository where he had posted it. This can be an actual technical glitch or a misinterpretation of repository operation” (Pedrosa et al. 2020) |
| Time Challenges | Topics that mention challenges related to time or timing, such as time spent by the instructor developing the course or time spent by the students attempting to complete the course | “Our study demonstrates that students invest significant time on lecture videos, homework, quizzes, and projects” (Fatehiboroujeni, Qattawi, & Goyal 2019) |
Theme 1
Content design and delivery.
| AUTHORS | COUNTRY AFFILIATION OF FIRST AUTHOR | TITLE |
|---|---|---|
| Pohl, L. M., & Walters, S. (2015) | United States | Instructional Videos in an Online Engineering Economics Course |
| Halada, G. P. (2017) | United States | Learning from Engineering Disasters: A Multidisciplinary Online Course |
| Andersson, C., & Logofatu, D. (2018) | Germany | Implementation of Online Problem-Based Learning for Mechanical Engineering Students |
| Fatehiboroujeni, S., Qattawi, A., & Goyal, S. (2019) | United States | Assessing and Improving Student Engagement and Motivation in Mechanical Engineering Online Courses |
| Uribe, M. D. R., Magana, A. J., Bahk, J. H., & Shakouri, A. (2016) | United States | Computational Simulations as Virtual Laboratories for Online Engineering Education: A Case Study in the Field of Thermoelectricity |
| Pedrosa, D., Morgado, L., Cravino, J., Fontes, M. M., Castelhano, M., Machado, C., & Curado, E. (2020) | Portugal | Challenges Implementing the SimProgramming Approach in Online Software Engineering Education for Promoting Self and Co-regulation of Learning |
| Purwar, A., & Scott, C. A. (2019) | United States | An Online Engineering Dynamics Class for College Sophomores: Design, Implementation, and Assessment |
| Astatke, Y., & Scott, C. J. (2011) | United States | Electric Circuits Online – Towards a Completely Online Electrical Engineering Curriculum |
| Zhang, Y. (2020) | United States | A Cross-Referencing System for Curriculum Coordination in Multi-Institution Online Graduate Engineering Degree Programs: Case Study of the Virginia Engineering Online Program |
| Balagiu, A., & Sandiuc, C. (2020) | Romania | Developing an online course for marine engineering |
| Badjou, S., & Dahmani, R. (2013) | United States | Current Status of Online Science and Engineering Education |
| Chen, B., Bastedo, K., & Howard, W. (2018) | United States | Exploring Design Elements for Online STEM Courses: Active Learning, Engagement & Assessment Design |
| Kiridena, S. B., Samaranayake, P., & Hastie, D. B. (2014) | Australia | Instructional Design for Online Course Delivery in Engineering Management: Synthesizing Learning Styles, Pedagogical Perspectives and Contingency Factors |
| Badurdeen, F., Baker, J. R., Rouch, K. E., Goble, C. F., Swan, G. M., Brown, A., & Jawahir, I. S. (2015) | United States | Development of an Online Master’s Degree Program in Manufacturing Systems Engineering |
| Minichiello, A., Legler, N., Hailey, C., & Adams, V. D. (2013) | United States | Online Engineering Course Design, Part I: Toward Asynchronous, Web-based Delivery of a First Course in Thermodynamics |
| Bozkurt, I., & Helm, J. (2013) | United States | Development and Application of a Systems Engineering Framework to Support Online Course Design and Delivery |
| Matzakos, N. M., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2018) | Greece | An analysis of first year engineering students’ satisfaction with a support distance learning program in mathematic |
| de la Torre, L., Sàenz, J., Chaos, D., Sánchez, J., & Dormido, S. (2020) | Spain | A Master Course on Automatic Control Based on the Use of Online Labs |
| Batanero, C., de-Marcos, L., Holvikivi, J., Hilera, J. R., & Otón, S. (2019) | Spain | Effects of New Supportive Technologies for Blind and Deaf Engineering Students in Online Learning |
| Bir, D. D., & Ahn, B. (2017) | United States | Examining student attitudes to improve an undergraduate online engineering course |
| Danaher, M. (2014) | United Arab Emirates | Online Engineering Courses: Benchmarking Quality |
Theme 2
Interactions in Online Engineering Courses.
| AUTHORS | COUNTRY AFFILIATION OF FIRST AUTHOR | TITLE |
|---|---|---|
| Avanzato, R. L. (2017) | United States | Virtual World Technology to Support Student Collaboration in an Online Engineering Course |
| Fatehiboroujeni, S., Qattawi, A., & Goyal, S. (2019) | United States | Assessing and Improving Student Engagement and Motivation in Mechanical Engineering Online Courses |
| Yousuf, B., & Conlan, O. (2017) | Ireland | Supporting Student Engagement Through Explorable Visual Narratives |
| Odom, P. W., Merzdorf, H. E., Montalvo, F. J., & Davis, J. M. (2019) | United States | Analysis of Student Engagement Data from U.S. World News Report Regarding Online Graduate Engineering Programs |
| Fu, P. (2019) | United States | Trifecta of Engagement in an Online Engineering Management Course |
| Schutz, D. M., Kim, Y. Y., & Dionne, D. (2018) | Japan | Factors Influencing Student Veteran Participation in Online Engineering Education |
Theme 3
Assessment in Online Engineering Courses.
| AUTHORS | COUNTRY AFFILIATION OF FIRST AUTHOR | TITLE |
|---|---|---|
| Purwar, A., & Scott, C. A. (2019, June) | United States | An Online Engineering Dynamics Class for College Sophomores: Design, Implementation, and Assessment |
| Siddhpura, A., & Siddhpura, M. (2020, December) | Australia | Plagiarism, Contract Cheating And Other Academic Misconducts In Online Engineering Education: Analysis, Detection And Prevention Strategies |
| Pamplona, S., Seoane, I., & Bravo-Agapito, J. (2018, October) | Spain | Assessing Conceptual Knowledge in Three Online Engineering Courses: Theory of Computation and Compiler Construction, Operating Systems, and Signal and Systems |
| Balagiu, A., & Sandiuc, C. (2020) | Romania | Developing an online course for marine engineering |
| Chatterjee, R., Kamal, A. E., & Wang, Z. (2016, June) | United States | Alternate Assessments to Support Formative Evaluations in an Asynchronous Online Computer Engineering Graduate Course |
| Cooper, M. E., Bullard, L. G., Spencer, D., & Willis, C. (2020) | United States | Direct and Indirect Assessment of Student Perspectives and Performance in an Online/Distance Education Chemical Engineering Bridging Course Sequence |
| Fu, P. (2019) | United States | Trifecta of Engagement in an Online Engineering Management Course |
| Danaher, M. (2014) | United Arab Emirates | Online engineering courses: Benchmarking quality |
Theme 4
Feedback in Online Engineering Courses.
| AUTHORS | COUNTRY AFFILIATION OF FIRST AUTHOR | TITLE |
|---|---|---|
| Purwar, A., & Scott, C. A. (2019) | United States | An Online Engineering Dynamics Class for College Sophomores: Design, Implementation, and Assessment |
| Rutz, E., & Ehrlich, S. (2016) | United States | Increasing Learner Engagement in Online Learning through Use of Interactive Feedback: Results of a Pilot Study |
| Mansor, M. S. A., & Ismail, A. (2012) | Malaysia | Learning styles and perception of engineering students towards online learning |
| Fu, P. (2019) | United States | Trifecta of Engagement in an Online Engineering Management Course |
| Sancho-Vinuesa, T., Masià, R., Fuertes- Alpiste, M., & Molas-Castells, N. (2018) | Spain | Exploring the effectiveness of continuous activity with automatic feedback in online calculus |
Theme 5
Challenges in Online Engineering.
| AUTHORS | COUNTRY AFFILIATION OF FIRST AUTHOR | TITLE |
|---|---|---|
| Pedrosa, D., Morgado, L., Cravino, J., Fontes, M. M., Castelhano, M., Machado, C., & Curado, E. (2020) | Portugal | Challenges Implementing the SimProgramming Approach in Online Software Engineering Education for Promoting Self and Co-regulation of Learning |
| Perales Jarillo, M., Pedraza, L., Moreno Ger, P., & Bocos, E. (2019) | Spain | Challenges of Online Higher Education in the Face of the Sustainability Objectives of the United Nations: Carbon Footprint, Accessibility and Social Inclusion |
| Hachey, A. C., Wladis, C., & Conway, K. (2015) | United States | Prior online course experience and GPA as predictors of subsequent online STEM course outcomes |
| Cooper, M. E., Bullard, L. G., Spencer, D., & Willis, C. (2020) | United States | Direct and Indirect Assessment of Student Perspectives and Performance in an Online/Distance Education Chemical Engineering Bridging Course Sequence |
| Kiridena, S. B., Samaranayake, P., & Hastie, D. B. (2014) | Australia | Instructional Design for Online Course Delivery in Engineering Management: Synthesizing Learning Styles, Pedagogical Perspectives and Contingency Factors |
| Rutz, E., & Ehrlich, S. (2016) | United States | Increasing Learner Engagement in Online Learning through Use of Interactive Feedback: Results of a Pilot Study |
| Zhang, Y. (2020) | United States | A Cross-Referencing System for Curriculum Coordination in Multi-Institution Online Graduate Engineering Degree Programs: Case Study of the Virginia Engineering Online Program |
| Levy, Y., & Ramim, M. M. (2017) | United States | The E-Learning Skills Gap Study: Initial Results of Skills Desired for Persistence and Success in Online Engineering and Computing Courses |
| Hammout, N., & Hosseini, S. (2020) | Morocco | Involvement of students in online master’s studies of Engineering and Science: a path to minimize the gender gap in STEM |