Figure 1.
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Figure 11.
Figure 12.
The charging current characteristics of the proposed algorithm
| SoC (%) | Peak Current (A) | Average Charging Current (A) | C-Rate | Charging Voltage (V) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 13 | 10 | 0.5 | 84 |
| 20 | 24 | 20 | 1 | 84 |
| 40 | 23 | 20 | 1 | 84 |
| 60 | 22 | 20 | 1 | 84 |
| 80 | 15 | 10 | 0.5 | 84 |
| 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 84 |
The fuzzy rule for medium SoC level
| SoC: Medium | error | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NB | N | Z | P | PB | ||
| Δ error | NB | PB | PB | PB | PB | PB |
| N | PB | PB | PB | PB | PB | |
| Z | PB | PB | PB | PB | PB | |
| P | PB | PB | PB | PB | PB | |
| PB | PB | PB | PB | PB | PB | |
The charger hardware implementation parameters
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| RMS Input Voltage | 220-230V 50Hz (AC) |
| Voltage Input | 30 V |
| Current Input | 0.4 A |
| Power Input | 12 W |
| Voltage Output | 21 V |
| Current Output | 0.564 A |
| Output Capacitor | 100 uF |
| Inductor | 60 uH |
| Switching Device | MOSFET |
| Switching Frequency | 30 kHz |
| Battery Array | 5 series 1 parallel |
| Power Output | 11.85 W |
| Charger Efficiency | 98.8 % |
The fuzzy rule for high SoC level
| SoC: High | error | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NB | N | Z | P | PB | ||
| Δ error | NB | NB | NB | NB | NB | NB |
| N | NB | NB | NB | NB | N | |
| Z | NB | NB | NB | NB | N | |
| P | NB | NB | NB | N | N | |
| PB | NB | NB | N | N | N | |
Comparison between the proposed method and previous methods
| Ref. | Year | Converter Type | Algorithm | Efficiency (%) | Charging Time 0-100% SoC (min) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [27] | 2012 | Boost | Neural Network | 97.8 | 85 |
| [28] | 2018 | Flyback | PSO | 94.2 | 100 |
| [29] | 2019 | Quasi-Resonant | Hysteresis Control | 97.5 | 70 |
| [15] | 2020 | Cuk | DCM | - | 120 |
| [30] | 2020 | Buck-Boost | FLC | 95.5 | 90 |
| [31] | 2021 | SEPIC | PID | 92.3 | 110 |
| [32] | 2022 | Interleaved Boost | FLC | 98.5 | 65 |
| [17] | 2023 | Buck | ANFIS | - | 175 |
| [33] | 2023 | Zeta | Sliding Mode Control | 98.1 | 80 |
| [34] | 2024 | LLC | GA | 96.7 | 95 |
| [35] | 2024 | Dual Active Bridge | MPC | 97.9 | 75 |
| Proposed | 2025 | 3-Phase IBC | PI-FLC | 98.8 | 57.75 |
The fuzzy rule for low SoC level
| SoC: Low | error | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NB | N | Z | P | PB | ||
| Δ error | NB | Z | Z | Z | Z | Z |
| N | Z | N | N | Z | P | |
| Z | Z | Z | Z | P | PB | |
| P | Z | Z | P | PB | PB | |
| PB | Z | P | PB | PB | PB | |
The charger simulation parameters
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| RMS Input Voltage | 220-230V 50Hz (AC) |
| AC Transformator | 1:2 |
| Rectifier | 2 kW |
| Switching device | MOSFET N-type Rd = 0.01 Ω Rs = 1e5 Ω |
| Inductor Ls | 1e-3H |
| Capacitor output CO | 200e-6F |
| Voltage output Vo | 48-84V |
| Output current io | 0-20A |