Table 1
Societal biases categorization.
| # | CATEGORIES | DESCRIPTION |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | gender/sexuality | Gender reflects societal roles and traits associated with individuals based on their perceived sex, e.g., associating “care” and “emotions” with females and “strong” or “brave” with males. Sexuality involves how individuals experience and express their sexual and romantic identities. |
| 2 | profession | e.g., viewing certain profession as “clean”, “well-respected”, “successful” and certain jobs as “dirty”, “unwanted” |
| 3 | race | e.g., associating black or brown race with distrust |
| 4 | religion | valuing certain religions as superior |
| 5 | nationality | prejudice or discrimination based on an individual’s country of origin or affiliation |
| 6 | other societal biases | other societal biases that support certain cultural, ethnic, or other values over other types of cultures |
| 7 | generic | all of these algorithmic biases without specifying which one |
Table 2
Final search terms and results by platforms.
| DATABASE | SEARCH TERMS | RESULTS |
|---|---|---|
| Scopus | TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Chatgpt” OR “generative AI” OR “GAI”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“higher education” OR “university” OR “college” OR “education” AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“bias” OR “discrimination”)) | 116 |
| arXiv | classification: computer science (cs); include cross list: True; terms: AND abstract = “Chatgpt” OR “generative AI” OR “GAI”; AND abstract = “education” OR “higher education” OR “university administration”; AND abstract = “bias” OR “discrimination” | 13 |
| CiNii | TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Chatgpt” OR “生成AI”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“教育” OR “高等教育”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“偏見” OR “差別” OR“バイアス”) | 0 |
| CNKI | TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Chatgpt” OR “生成 AI”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“教育” OR “高等教育”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“歧视”) | 13 |
Figure 1
Data extraction processes.
Table 3
Articles included in the review (authors’ information and the description of main content including focus area and types of biases* mentioned).
| AUTHOR(S) DESCRIPTION | CONTENT DESCRIPTION | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| # | AUTHORS | REGION | INSTITUTION | LANGUAGE | COUNTRY/REGION | EDUCATION LEVEL | AREAS/DISCIPLINES | FOCUS AREA (TEACHING, LEARNING, RESEARCH, ADMINISTRATION) | SOCIETAL BIASES* |
| Scopus | |||||||||
| 1 | Abd-Alrazaq et al., | Middle East and Northern America | R | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | learning, teaching | 7 |
| 2 | Bannister et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | language education | learning, teaching | 5, 6 |
| 3 | Corsello et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | learning, research | 6 |
| 4 | Dwivedi et al., | Europe and multinational | URH | English | generic | tertiary | general | teaching, learning, research, administration | 1,3,6 |
| 5 | Farrokhnia et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | general | teaching, learning | 6 |
| 6 | Hidayat-ur-Rehman & Ibrahim | Middle East | U | English | Middle East | tertiary | general | teaching, learning | 7 |
| 7 | Karabacak et al., | Northern America | RH | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | research | 3,4,6 |
| 8 | Kasneci et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | general | teaching, learning | 6 |
| 9 | Leung et al., | Northern America | U | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | administration | 1 |
| 10 | Lin et al., | Oceania and East Asia | U | English | Oceania | tertiary | medical education | learning | 6 |
| 11 | Masters | Middle East | U | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | teaching, adiministration | 1,3,4,6 |
| 12 | Mohamed | Middle East | U | English | Middle East | tertiary | medical education | teaching | 7 |
| 13 | Najafali et al., | Northern America | U | English | generic | generic | medical education | teaching,research | 1 |
| 14 | Qadir | Middle East | U | English | generic | tertiary | language education | teaching, learning | 7 |
| 15 | Rasul et al., | Oceania | U | English | generic | tertiary | engineering education | teaching, learining,research, administration | 6 |
| 16 | Smith et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | medical education | teaching, learning | 6 |
| 17 | Tong et al., | East Asia and Europe | U | English | East Asia | generic | medical education | teaching | 6 |
| 18 | Tülübaş et al., | Euroasia | U | English | generic | generic | higher education | teaching | 6 |
| 19 | Vartiainen & Tedre | Europe | U | English | Europe | tertiary | Art education | teaching | 1,3,5,6 |
| 20 | Witte et al., | Europe | H | English | generic | tertiary | higher education | teaching, learning, research | 1,2,3 |
| ArXiv | |||||||||
| 21 | Belgodere et al., | Northern America | R | English | Northern America | tertiary | higher education | administration | 1,3,5 |
| 22 | Caines et al., | Europe | U | English | generic | tertiary | language education | teaching | 7 |
| 23 | Derner et al., | Europe | UR | Enlgish | generic | generic | psychology education | research | 1,6 |
| 24 | Fecher et al., | Europe | R | English | generic | tertiary | general | research | 7 |
| 25 | Goyal et al., | Northern America | U | English | generic | tertiary | general | teaching, learning, research | 6 |
| 26 | Liang et al., | Northern America | U | English | generic | tertiary | language education | teaching, learning, research | 6 |
| 27 | Łodzikowski | Northern America | U | English | generic | generic general | teaching, learning | 7 | |
| 28 | Zhou | East Asia | U | English | generic | generic | language education | teaching, learning | 1, 6 |
| CNKI | |||||||||
| 29 | Cui et al. | East Asia | U | Chinese | generic | tertiary | higher education | teaching, learning, research, administration | 3 |
| 30 | Wang et al. | East Asia | U | Chinese | generic | generic | higher education | teaching, learning, research | 7 |
| 31 | Zhu & Yang | East Asia | U | Chinese | East Asia | generic | general | teaching, learning | 1,2,3,6 |
[i] *The numbers refer to the categories of bias outlined in Table 1.