References
- Day EA. Immunometabolic contributions to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. In: Metabolites as signals in immunity and inflammation. Elsevier; 2025. p. 109–28.
- Rustamovna IF, Bobomuratovich SU. Cardiopulmonary diseases: statistics and prevention. Am J Appl Med Sci. 2025;3(1):234–7.
- Chong B, et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: projections from 2025 to 2050. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2024. Article zwae281.
- Hussain MM, et al. Risk factors associated with cardiovascular disorders: risk factors associated with cardiovascular disorders. Pak Biomed J. 2024;03–10.
- Libby P. Inflammation and the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Elsevier; 2024. p. 107255.
- DeFilippis AP, Blaha MJ. Defining myocardial infarction: grades of severity or different aetiology. Oxford University Press UK; 2025. p. 142–4.
- Yu J, et al. Inflammation in heart failure: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Cardiovasc Innov Appl. 2025;9(1):9–22.
- Yang X, et al. The relationship between composite inflammatory indicators and short-term outcomes in patients with heart failure. Int J Cardiol. 2025;420:132755.
- Madaudo C, et al. Discovering inflammation in atherosclerosis: insights from pathogenic pathways to clinical practice. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(11):6016.
- Zhang H, Dhalla NS. The role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(2):1082.
- Lusta KA, et al. Hypotheses on atherogenesis triggering: does the infectious nature of atherosclerosis development have a substruction? Cells. 2023;12(5):707.
- Atween A, et al. The utility of high-sensitive C-reactive protein and cardiac markers in the prediction of heart diseases. J Med Health Res Psychiatry. 2025;1-7.
- Blagov AV, et al. Cytokines are the basis of the development and suppression of inflammation in atherosclerosis. Rev Cardiovasc Med. 2025;26(3):26421.
- Caiati C, Jirillo E. The immune system: an arrow to the heart and principles of cardioimmunology as an emerging branch of medicine. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2025.
- Kleimann P, et al. Trained innate immunity in animal models of cardiovascular diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(4):2312.
- Golino M, et al. Innate and adaptive immunity in acute myocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2024:131901.
- Aday AW, Ridker PM. Antiinflammatory therapy in clinical care: the CANTOS trial and beyond. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2018;5:62.
- Weber C, von Hundelshausen P. CANTOS trial validates the inflammatory pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: setting the stage for a new chapter in therapeutic targeting. Circ Res. 2017;121(10):1119–21.
- Toldo S, Abbate A. The role of the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis in cardiovascular diseases. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2024;21(4):219–37.
- Mo B, Ding Y, Ji Q. NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular diseases: an update. Front Immunol. 2025;16:1550226.
- Fu J, Schroder K, Wu H. Mechanistic insights from inflammasome structures. Nat Rev Immunol. 2024;24(7):518–35.
- Saadh MJ, et al. Inflammasomes and cardiovascular disease: linking inflammation to cardiovascular pathophysiology. Scand J Immunol. 2025;101(4):e70020.
- Que X, et al. Fantastic voyage: the journey of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Genes Dis. 2024;11(2):819–29.
- Chen L, et al. Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury: the balance mechanism between mitophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome. Life Sci. 2024; [e-pub ahead of print]:122998.
- Haque SE, Khan A, Iqubal A. Mechanism of NLRP3 activation, associated cardiovascular complications and update on its inhibitors acting as cardioprotective agents. In: The NLRP3 Inflammasome: An Attentive Arbiter of Inflammatory Response. Bentham Science Publishers; 2024. p. 72–95.
- Carmo HR, et al. High-density lipoproteins at the interface between the NLRP3 inflammasome and myocardial infarction. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(2):1290.
- Zhong Y, et al. Effects of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis on cardiovascular diseases and intervention mechanism of Chinese medicine. Chin J Integr Med. 2024;30(5):468–79.
- Hu Y, et al. Research progress on the improvement of cardiovascular diseases through the autonomic nervous system regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2024;11:1369343.
- Haoran J, Jianlong S. Research progress on the role of interleukin-1 family and inflammasome-related members in cardiovascular diseases. J Clin Cardiol. 2025;41(3):234–40.
- Al Noman A, et al. Exploring the involvement of new members of the interleukin family in cardiovascular disease. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2025.
- Katkenov N, et al. Systematic review on the role of IL-6 and IL-1ß in cardiovascular diseases. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2024;11(7):206.
- Gaikwad VV, et al. Mechanisms of inflammation associated with chronic diseases: a brief review. J Adv Med Med Res. 2025;37(3):48–56.
- Altyar AE, et al. Role of IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α as potential biomarkers in ischemic heart disease: a comparative study of patients with CAD and non-CAD. Med Sci. 2025;13(2):40.
- Tabatabaei SA, et al. Circulating levels of C1q/TNF-α-related protein 6 (CTRP6) in coronary artery disease and its correlation with inflammatory markers. J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2024;23(1):1233–1241.
- Bialecka M, et al. An evaluation of plasma TNF, VEGF-A, and IL-6 determination as a risk marker of atherosclerotic vascular damage in early-onset CAD patients. J Clin Med. 2024;13(6):1742.
- Döring Y, van der Vorst EP, Weber C. Targeting immune cell recruitment in atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2024;21(11):824–840.
- Stangret A, et al. Chemokine fractalkine and non-obstructive coronary artery disease—Is there a link? Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(7):3885.
- Nagar N, et al. Elucidating the role of chemokines in inflammaging associated atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Mech Ageing Dev. 2024:111944.
- Xie F, et al. Effects of sodium tanshinone IIA sulfonate injection on pro-inflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules, and chemokines in Chinese patients with atherosclerosis and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2025;12:1511747.
- Martín P, Sánchez-Madrid F. T cells in cardiac health and disease. J Clin Invest. 2025;135(2).
- Liu T, et al. Immune cell-mediated features of atherosclerosis. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2024;11:1450737.
- Iwabuchi K, et al. Recent advances regarding the potential roles of invariant natural killer T cells in cardiovascular diseases with immunological and inflammatory backgrounds. Int Immunol. 2024;36(8):377–392.
- Wang Y, et al. Ox-LDL-induced CD80+ macrophages expand pro-atherosclerotic NKT cells via CD1d in atherosclerotic mice and hyperlipidemic patients. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2024;326(6):C1563-C1572.
- Ma J, et al. The roles of B cells in cardiovascular diseases. Mol Immunol. 2024;171:36–46.
- Jones PW, Mallat Z, Nus M. T-cell/B-cell interactions in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2024;44(7):1502–1511.
- Zhang L, et al. The role of immunoglobulins in atherosclerosis development; friends or foe? Mol Cell Biochem. 2024:1–11.
- Hemme E. Mast cells in advanced atherosclerosis: from human plaque stability to new therapeutic targets. Leiden University; 2025.
- Ajoolabady A, et al. Inflammation in atherosclerosis: pathophysiology and mechanisms. Cell Death Dis. 2024;15(11):817.
- Młynarska E, et al. From atherosclerotic plaque to myocardial infarction—the leading cause of coronary artery occlusion. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(13):7295.
- Kumphune S, et al. Identification of early protein damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMPs) candidates from cardiac cells subjected to an in vitro myocardial ischemic injury. Nat Life Sci Commun. 2024;23(3):e20240.
- Yang Y, et al. Macrophages after myocardial infarction: mechanisms for repairing and potential as therapeutic approaches. Int Immunopharmacol. 2024;143:113562.
- DeBerge M, et al. Mechanical regulation of macrophage metabolism by allograft inflammatory factor 1 leads to adverse remodeling after cardiac injury. Nat Cardiovasc Res. 2025;1-19.
- Liu H, et al. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: the role of inflammation. Eur J Pharmacol. 2024;176858.
- Shi J, et al. The inflammation-fibrosis combined index: a novel marker for predicting left ventricular reverse remodeling and prognosis in patients with HFrEF. J Inflamm Res. 2024;3967-3982.
- Fu Z, et al. Association of systemic inflammatory markers with clinical adverse prognosis and outcomes in HFpEF: a systematic review and metaanalysis of cohort studies. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2024;11:1461073.
- Fayyaz AU, et al. Pathophysiological insights into HFpEF from studies of human cardiac tissue. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2025;22(2):90–104.
- Shah SR, et al. Canakinumab and cardiovascular outcomes: results of the CANTOS trial. J Community Hosp Intern Med Perspect. 2018;8(1): 21–22.
- Ridker PM, et al. Antiinflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(12):1119–31.
- Ridker PM, et al. Relationship of C-reactive protein reduction to cardiovascular event reduction following treatment with canakinumab: a secondary analysis from the CANTOS randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;391(10118):319–28.
- Palmer RD, Vaccarezza M. New promises and challenges on inflammation and atherosclerosis: insights from CANTOS and CIRT trials. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2019;6:90.
- Tardif J-C, et al. Efficacy and safety of low-dose colchicine after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(26):2497–2505.
- Nidorf SM, et al. Low-dose colchicine for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(4):404–10.
- Andreotti F, et al. Anti-inflammatory therapy in ischaemic heart disease: from canakinumab to colchicine. Eur Heart J Suppl. 2021;23(Suppl_E):E13-18.
- Li H, et al. Therapeutic potential of MCC950, a specific inhibitor of NLRP3 inflammasome. Eur J Pharmacol. 2022;928:175091.
- Blevins HM, et al. The NLRP3 inflammasome pathway: a review of mechanisms and inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:879021.
- Ridker PM, et al. IL-6 inhibition with ziltivekimab in patients at high atherosclerotic risk (RESCUE): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2021;397(10289):2060–9.
- Choy EH, et al. Therapeutic benefit of blocking interleukin-6 activity with an anti-interleukin-6 receptor monoclonal antibody in rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46(12):3143–50.
- Samuel M, Tardif J-C. Lessons learned from large cardiovascular outcome trials targeting inflammation in cardiovascular disease (CANTOS, CIRT, COLCOT and LoDoCo2). 2021. p. 411–14.
- Packer M, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with empagliflozin in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(15):1413–24.
- Zinman B, et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(22):2117–28.
- Wanner C, et al. Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):323–34.
- Elrakaybi A, et al. Cardiovascular protection by SGLT2 inhibitors–Do anti-inflammatory mechanisms play a role? Mol Metab. 2022;64:101549.
- Rykova EY, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of SGLT2 inhibitors: focus on macrophages. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;26(4):1670.
- Xu Z, et al. Aerobic exercise mitigates high-fat diet-induced cardiac dysfunction, pyroptosis, and inflammation by inhibiting STING-NLRP3 signaling pathway. Mol Cell Biochem. 2024:1–12.
- Janssen H, Koekkoek LL, Swirski FK. Effects of lifestyle factors on leukocytes in cardiovascular health and disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2024;21(3):157–69.
- Estruch R, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(14):1279–90.
- Schwingshackl L, Morze J, Hoffmann G. Mediterranean diet and health status: active ingredients and pharmacological mechanisms. Br J Pharmacol. 2020;177(6):1241–57.
- Nigam M, et al. Exploration of gut microbiome and inflammation: a review on key signalling pathways. Cell Signal. 2024:111140.
- Di Vincenzo F, et al. Gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, and systemic inflammation: a narrative review. Intern Emerg Med. 2024;19(2):275–93.
- Yao Y, et al. Short chain fatty acids: essential weapons of traditional medicine in treating inflammatory bowel disease. Molecules. 2024;29(2):379.
- Nuriah C, Iswanti FC, Pradipta A. The role of high sensitivity C-reactive protein as an inflammation predictor in cardiovascular diseases. Bioscientia Med. 2024;8(9):4965–76.
- Landy E, et al. Biological and clinical roles of IL-18 in inflammatory diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2024;20(1):33–47.
- Fava C, Montagnana M. Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease which lacks a common anti-inflammatory therapy: how human genetics can help to this issue. A narrative review. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:55.
- Rasalam R, et al. State of precision medicine for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in a new therapeutic age. ESC Heart Fail. 2025.
- Bednarek A, et al. Artificial intelligence in imaging for personalized management of coronary artery disease. J Clin Med. 2025;14(2):462.
- Sethi Y, et al. Precision medicine and the future of cardiovascular diseases: a clinically oriented comprehensive review. J Clin Med. 2023;12(5):1799.
- Ridker PM, Lüscher TF. Anti-inflammatory therapies for cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(27):1782–91.
- Thompson PL, Nidorf SM. Anti-inflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease: lessons from the CANTOS trial. J Thorac Dis. 2018;10(2):695.
- Anderson K, Hamm RL. Factors that impair wound healing. J Am Coll Clin Wound Spec. 2012;4(4):84–91.
- Wang P, Ma J, Zhang R. Inflammasomes as potential therapeutic targets in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2022;22(14):1378–89.
- Zheng Y, et al. MCC950 as a promising candidate for blocking NLRP3 inflammasome activation: a review of preclinical research and future directions. Arch Pharm. 2024;357(11):e2400459.
- Li BY, et al. Discovery and development of NLRP3 inhibitors targeting the LRR domain to disrupt NLRP3-NEK7 interaction for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. J Med Chem. 2024;67(12):9869–95.
- Romano A, Mortellaro A. The new frontiers of gene therapy and gene editing in inflammatory diseases. Hum Gene Ther. 2024;35(7–8):219–31.
- Sopić M, et al. Targeting noncoding RNAs to treat atherosclerosis. Br J Pharmacol. 2025;182(2):220–45.
- Tani H. Recent advances and prospects in RNA drug development. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(22):12284.
- Tsioulos G, et al. Vaccination as a promising approach in cardiovascular risk mitigation: are we ready to embrace a vaccine strategy? Biomolecules. 2024;14(12):1637.
- Kumar R, Krishnaperumal G, Vellapandian C. Innovative mRNA vaccine approaches in targeting atherosclerosis: a new era in cardiovascular therapy. Cureus. 2024;16(11).
- Shekarchizadeh Esfahani M, et al. Immunotherapy and vaccine-based approaches for atherosclerosis prevention: a systematic review study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2025;25(1):201.