Integrating X-ray fluorescence and X-ray computed tomography for comprehensive analysis of historical ceramics from the Kraków Upland

This study presents the application of non-destructive analytical techniques, particularly X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray computed tomography (XCT), to characterize archaeological pottery from medieval and early post-medieval periods. Five pottery samples from three nearby sites located in the Kraków Upland (Kraków district, Poland) were analyzed to explore their material composition, structural properties, and manufacturing techniques. The XRF analysis revealed a detailed elemental composition, and the results obtained matched those of the XRF analysis of source clay deposits in the same microregion. Archaeological pottery contains 3–4 times more silicon than clay deposits, which can be explained by the addition of sandy temper. The level of aluminum in ceramics is similar to that of Al in clay deposits. We also observe a slightly higher contribution of iron in our pottery samples compared to the clay pottery samples. The XCT analysis provided high-resolution, three-dimensional (3-D) images of internal structures, such as inclusions and voids, enabling further investigation into tempering and preparation methods. Segmentation and void analyses demonstrated variations in clay refinement, inclusion distribution, and porosity, indicating a range of manufacturing techniques from rudimentary to advanced practices. The integration of XRF and XCT results underscored the complementary strengths of these techniques despite their respective limitations, such as challenges in mineral differentiation in XCT and voxel resolution constraints. The findings highlight the importance of combining chemical and structural analyses to gain a comprehensive understanding of archaeological ceramics. This study advances the methodological approaches for pottery analysis and offers broader implications for archaeological research and heritage conservation.