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Mineralogical and whole-rock geochemical characterization of cherts from Gebel EL-Khashab (Oligocene), East Cairo, Egypt: evidence for silica sources Cover

Mineralogical and whole-rock geochemical characterization of cherts from Gebel EL-Khashab (Oligocene), East Cairo, Egypt: evidence for silica sources

Open Access
|Dec 2025

Figures & Tables

Figure 1.

(a) Location of the area of Gebel El-Khashab reserve (X); (b) Geological map of East Cairo, Egypt (after Salama & Mustoe, 2023); (c) Stratigraphic section of the reserve area; (d,e) Field pictures showing chert gravels associated with sands in the area. Note the size, shape, and surface texture of these gravels are highly variable, most likely due to the long journey they made before reaching to their present place.
(a) Location of the area of Gebel El-Khashab reserve (X); (b) Geological map of East Cairo, Egypt (after Salama & Mustoe, 2023); (c) Stratigraphic section of the reserve area; (d,e) Field pictures showing chert gravels associated with sands in the area. Note the size, shape, and surface texture of these gravels are highly variable, most likely due to the long journey they made before reaching to their present place.

Figure 2.

Photographs of freshly broken chert gravels from the studied area: (a–h) Siliceous gravels exhibiting banding structures; (i–l) Non-banded siliceous gravels without cortices (Note geodes or cavities in K and L samples).
Photographs of freshly broken chert gravels from the studied area: (a–h) Siliceous gravels exhibiting banding structures; (i–l) Non-banded siliceous gravels without cortices (Note geodes or cavities in K and L samples).

Figure 3.

Optical photomicrographs showing mineral and textural characteristics of chert gravels from the studied area. (a) Cavity occupied by megaquartz, drusy texture; (b) Another cavity filled with chalcedonic quartz; (c) Prismatic, zoned-detrital zircon; (d) Monocrystalline, detrital quartz; (e) Rhombic calcite microcrystals; (f) One complete section of an echinoid spine; (g) Fossil of a crinoid columnal; (h) Fragment of an echinoid plate. CPL, cross-polarized light; PPL, plane-polarized light; Qzchc, chalcedoic quartz; Qzdetrital, detrital quartz; Qzmega, megaquartz; Qzmicro, microquartz; Zrdetrital, detrital zircon.
Optical photomicrographs showing mineral and textural characteristics of chert gravels from the studied area. (a) Cavity occupied by megaquartz, drusy texture; (b) Another cavity filled with chalcedonic quartz; (c) Prismatic, zoned-detrital zircon; (d) Monocrystalline, detrital quartz; (e) Rhombic calcite microcrystals; (f) One complete section of an echinoid spine; (g) Fossil of a crinoid columnal; (h) Fragment of an echinoid plate. CPL, cross-polarized light; PPL, plane-polarized light; Qzchc, chalcedoic quartz; Qzdetrital, detrital quartz; Qzmega, megaquartz; Qzmicro, microquartz; Zrdetrital, detrital zircon.

Figure 4.

Characteristic OM textures and morphologies in the studied chert: (a) Branching organic textures, diffused and clotted OM, tiny organic spheres, and organic morphotypes; (b) Various forms of organic morphotypes (c) Approximately 200 μm diameter sphere filled with OM and having spongy texture; (d) Organic sphere filled with microcrystalline quartz. CPL, cross-polarized light; OM, organic matter; PPL, plane-polarized light.
Characteristic OM textures and morphologies in the studied chert: (a) Branching organic textures, diffused and clotted OM, tiny organic spheres, and organic morphotypes; (b) Various forms of organic morphotypes (c) Approximately 200 μm diameter sphere filled with OM and having spongy texture; (d) Organic sphere filled with microcrystalline quartz. CPL, cross-polarized light; OM, organic matter; PPL, plane-polarized light.

Figure 5.

PAAS-normalized REE values of the chert and its associated sand from the studied area. PAAS, Post Archean Australian Shale; REE, rare earth elements.
PAAS-normalized REE values of the chert and its associated sand from the studied area. PAAS, Post Archean Australian Shale; REE, rare earth elements.

Figure 6.

Origin of the studied chert: (a) Ternary diagram of Al–Fe–Mn of the samples (after Adachi et al., 1986); (b) Fe/Ti–Al/(Al + Fe + Mn) relationship diagram of the samples (after Boström, 1970, 1973, 1983). Plot includes ideal mixing curves from hydrothermal deposits to the mean values of continental crust and oceanic crust or basalts; (c) Al2O3/TiO2–Al/(Al + Fe + Mn) diagram of the samples (after Huang et al., 2012).
Origin of the studied chert: (a) Ternary diagram of Al–Fe–Mn of the samples (after Adachi et al., 1986); (b) Fe/Ti–Al/(Al + Fe + Mn) relationship diagram of the samples (after Boström, 1970, 1973, 1983). Plot includes ideal mixing curves from hydrothermal deposits to the mean values of continental crust and oceanic crust or basalts; (c) Al2O3/TiO2–Al/(Al + Fe + Mn) diagram of the samples (after Huang et al., 2012).

Figure 7.

Fe2O3T vs Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Fe2O3T) diagram for the chert samples of the studied area (after Murray, 1994).
Fe2O3T vs Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Fe2O3T) diagram for the chert samples of the studied area (after Murray, 1994).

LOI values and major element contents (wt_%) of chert and its associated sand from the studied area_

SiO2TiO2Al2O3Fe2O3TMnOCaOMgONa2OK2OLOI
Chert
C-197.05bdl0.040.41bdlbdl0.010.0050.010.80
C-298.12bdl0.140.360.0030.01nmnmnmnm
C-396.96bdl0.120.450.0040.17nmnmnmnm
C-597.400.040.050.46bdlbdl0.020.010.011.28
C-696.400.010.090.68bdl0.020.030.010.021.50
C-893.100.030.093.860.310.640.040.060.011.53
C-994.38bdl0.052.700.200.29nmnmnmnm
C-1091.270.040.056.10bdlbdl0.020.010.021.75
C-1296.100.030.110.890.010.320.050.060.012.03
C-1397.22bdl0.071.700.010.04nmnmnmnm
C-1497.58bdl0.071.180.060.13nmnmnmnm
C-1594.20bdlbdl1.440.042.960.010.040.011.19
C-1796.60bdlbdl0.470.0041.55bdl0.030.010.58
C-1995.330.040.260.58bdl0.030.020.050.031.87
C-2096.730.010.050.80bdl0.120.010.0050.010.40
C-2296.310.030.120.27bdl0.560.030.0040.021.27
C-2390.420.020.055.07bdl1.440.050.010.021.80
C-2490.420.010.085.78bdl0.050.020.0050.021.49
C-2589.44bdl0.134.740.380.610.070.04bdl2.30
C-2688.180.020.055.59bdl1.350.020.010.021.90
C-2794.08bdl0.081.260.170.14nmnmnmnm
C-28nmbdl0.083.950.390.48nmnmnmnm
C-2998.18bdl0.040.370.0070.11nmnmnmnm
C-3092.34bdl0.042.100.190.33nmnmnmnm
C-3198.26bdl0.060.200.040.11nmnmnmnm
C-3294.00bdl0.130.290.0071.19nmnmnmnm
Av.94.800.0250.0852.000.110.550.0280.0230.0161.45
Sand
S195.000.150.670.640.0110.660.150.050.221.57
S292.500.591.471.170.0241.210.250.160.451.83
S394.350.221.140.410.011.730.070.120.381.30
S4*94.800.251.200.460.042.340.100.230.39nm
S5*94.850.411.590.750.071.120.110.130.48nm
Av.94.30.321.210.690.031.410.140.140.381.57

Trace element compositions (ppm) of chert and its associated sand from the studied area, along with average compositions of the chondrite and PAAS (see text for references)_

ElementsChert
Sand
ChondritePAAS
C-1C-5C-8C-10C-19C-20C-22C-26Av.S3
Sc0.0430.0420.0900.0420.2380.1940.1070.0870.100.640nrnr
Y0.8390.1261.1250.3361.3011.2372.2041.5611.093.0402.10027
La0.4720.1530.8150.2621.4050.8711.3080.8180.764.9520.36738
Ce0.7960.5140.8900.6341.8133.4321.1340.8671.268.8170.95780
Pr0.0980.0410.1330.0500.2950.1600.2100.1310.141.3510.1378.9
Nd0.2960.0770.3650.1310.8090.4490.5860.3730.393.5560.71132
Sm0.0650.0200.0820.0310.1620.0920.1320.0830.080.7380.2315.6
Eu0.0260.0130.0610.0220.0560.0510.0490.0370.040.2000.0871.1
Gd0.0920.0260.1110.0410.1730.1340.1880.1140.110.6610.3064.7
Tb0.0170.0050.0190.0070.0350.0230.0340.0220.020.1330.0580.8
Dy0.0730.0200.0980.0330.1490.1200.1750.1130.100.5770.3814.4
Ho0.0240.0060.0320.0100.0460.0390.0570.0410.030.1590.0851.0
Er0.0550.0130.0780.0240.1070.1030.1390.0940.080.3580.2492.9
Tm0.0100.0030.0140.0050.0190.0180.0260.0170.010.0640.0360.4
Yb0.0690.0180.0790.0330.1100.1060.1480.0970.080.3810.2482.8
Lu0.0120.0030.0140.0050.0180.0180.0240.0180.010.0670.0380.4
ΣREE2.1000.9122.7911.2885.1975.6164.2102.8253.1122.013.891183
LREE1.7530.8182.3461.134.545.0553.4192.3092.6719.612.49165.6
HREE0.3520.0940.4450.1580.6570.5610.7910.5160.452.401.40117.4
LRRE/HREE4.988.705.277.156.919.014.324.476.358.171.789.52
Y/Ho34.921.035.033.628.331.735.438.1032.321.424.727.0
PAAS normalized
Ce/Ce*0.851.490.611.260.652.100.490.601.010.78--
Eu/Eu*1.554.022.992.901.562.071.451.772.291.34--

Calculated ratios of some elements for samples listed in Table 1_

Al/(Al + Fe + Mn)Al2O3/TiO2Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Fe2O3T)(Fe + Mn)/TiFe/TiFe2O3T/TiO2
Chert
C-10.07-0.09---
C-20.23-0.28---
C-30.17-0.21---
C-50.071.20.1013.4013.4011.50
C-60.099.00.1279.3079.3068.00
C-80.023.00.02163.0150.0128.7
C-90.01-0.02---
C-100.011.20.01178.0178.0152.5
C-120.023.70.1134.6034.6029.70
C-130.03-0.04---
C-140.04-0.09---
C-15------
C-17------
C-190.256.50.3016.9016.9014.60
C-200.045.00.0693.2093.3080.00
C-220.253.60.3010.5010.509.000
C-230.012.50.01295.0295.0253.5
C-240.018.00.01673.0673.0578.0
C-250.02-0.03---
C-260.012.50.01326.0325.0279.5
C-270.04-0.06---
C-280.01-0.02---
C-290.07-0.10---
C-300.01-0.02---
C-310.18-0.23---
C-320.25-0.31---
Av.0.084.200.11171.0170.0145.9
Sand
S10.434.470.515.04.974.27
S20.482.490.562.42.331.98
S30.675.180.742.32.201.86
S4*0.654.800.722.32.131.84
S5*0.603.880.682.32.131.83
Av.0.574.160.642.862.752.36
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/mipo-2025-0012 | Journal eISSN: 1899-8526 | Journal ISSN: 1899-8291
Language: English
Page range: 120 - 133
Submitted on: Sep 13, 2025
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Accepted on: Nov 18, 2025
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Published on: Dec 31, 2025
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

© 2025 Kamaleldin M. Hassan, published by Mineralogical Society of Poland
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.