Figure 1:
Map of Burkina Faso (administrative map) indicating the sampling sites across nine regions where nematological samples were collected.
Table 1:
Maximum density (n/dm3 of soil or n/g of roots) and frequency (%) of parasitic soil and root nematodes associated with papaya in Burkina Faso.
| Family | Genus | Density | Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| Soil nematodes | |||
| Hoplolaimidae | Rotylenchulus | 93,800 | 84.1 |
| Hoplolaimidae | Helicotylenchus | 9,800 | 84.5 |
| Heteroderidae | Meloidogyne | 7,880 | 68.6 |
| Hoplolaimidae | Scutellonema | 3,100 | 52.7 |
| Pratylenchidae | Pratylenchus | 2,600 | 33.3 |
| Telotylenchidae | Tylenchorhynchus | 400 | 14.0 |
| Criconematidae | Criconemoïdes | 60 | 12.1 |
| Longidoridae | Xiphinema | 40 | 4.3 |
| Trichodoridae | Trichodorus | 240 | 2.9 |
| Telotylenchidae | Telotylenchus | 40 | 0.48 |
| Root nematodes | |||
| Heteroderidae | Meloidogyne | 1,573 | 42.0 |
| Pratylenchidae | Pratylenchus | 219 | 13.0 |
| Hoplolaimidae | Rotylenchulus | 89 | 10.6 |
| Hoplolaimidae | Helicotylenchus | 25 | 8.2 |
| Hoplolaimidae | Scutellonema | 2 | 1.0 |
Table 2:
Distribution (%) of papaya varieties across nine production regions in Burkina Faso.
| Solo | FBPA1 | nd. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Boucle du Mouhoun | 67 | 0 | 33 |
| Centre-South | 85 | 0 | 17 |
| Cascades | 25 | 62 | 12 |
| Centre | 67 | 17 | 17 |
| Plateau Central | 67 | 0 | 33 |
| Centre-East | 75 | 0 | 25 |
| South-West | 100 | 0 | 0 |
| Centre-West | 62 | 0 | 38 |
| High-Basins | 68 | 26 | 6 |
Figure 2:
Bipartite diagram illustrating the distribution of nematode genera (down) by region (up) in Burkina Faso. A connecting line indicates the presence of a specific genus in a region. Boxes are sized according to the number of connections established.
Table 3:
Parasitic nematodes associated with papaya according to the cropping system (pure or associated to banana or eggplant).
| Nematode | Papaya | Papaya + Banana | Papaya + Eggplant | Global Average | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meloidogyne | 1,247 ± 1,205 | 525 ± 1,226 | 952 ± 1,798 | 908 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 7.17e−06) |
| Papaya vs Eggplant (P = 0.000758) | |||||
| Rotylenchulus | 11,767 ± 17,355 | 4,176 ± 8,470 | 5,250 ± 1,2217 | 7,064 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 3.81e−05) |
| Papaya vs Eggplant (P = 2.07e−05) | |||||
| Helicotylenchus | 2,391 ± 1,974 | 546 ± 2,126 | 1,552 ± 671 | 1,496 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 1.22e−06) |
| Papaya vs Eggplant (P = 0.02) | |||||
| Scutellonema | 161 ± 153 | 24 ± 51 | 239 ± 659 | 141 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 5.26e−08) |
| Papaya vs Eggplant (P = 0.005) | |||||
| Pratylenchus | 184 ± 487 | 10 ± 33 | 49 ± 132 | 81 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 2.85e−09) |
| Papaya vs Eggplant (P = 9.61e−07) | |||||
| Tylenchorhynchus | 33 ± 64 | 3 ± 11 | 30 ± 81 | 22 | Papaya vs Banana (P = 0.002) |
Figure 3:
Box plots illustrating nematode population densities (Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp., Pratylenchus spp., and Tylenchorhynchus spp.) according to the pure papaya cultivation system, papaya–banana associations, and papaya–eggplant associations. The study was conducted during a survey/collection of soil samples from 27 plots in papaya-based cropping systems to compare the impact of each system on nematode population densities. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences between groups when tested with the Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by post-hoc Dunn's test (P < 0.05).
Figure 4:
Distribution of parasitic nematodes associated with papaya according to cropping systems (pure or associated with banana or eggplant): (A) Biplot of PPN in interaction with cropping systems. (B) Hierarchical cluster analysis showing similarities between cropping systems based on nematode population densities. PPN, plant-parasitic nematode.
Figure 5:
Distribution maps of the prevalence (A,B) and abundance (C,D) of Meloidogyne spp. root samples of 61 papaya orchards across Burkina Faso.
Figure 6:
Distribution maps of the frequency (A,B) and abundance (C,D) of Rotylenchulus spp. in soil samples of 61 papaya orchards across Burkina Faso.
Figure S1:
Correlation matrix between Meloidogyne sp. frequency (A) or abundance (B) and weather parameters. PREC, Precipitation; RH2M, Relative humidity at 2 m above ground; T2M, Mean air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2M_MAX, Maximum air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2M_MIN, Minimum air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2MDEW, Dew point temperature at 2 m above ground.
Figure S2:
Correlation matrix between Rotylenchulus sp. frequency (A) or abundance (B) and weather parameters. PREC, precipitation; RH2M, relative humidity at 2 m above ground; T2M, mean air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2M_MAX, maximum air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2M_MIN, minimum air temperature at 2 m above ground; T2MDEW, dew point temperature at 2 m above ground.
Table S1:
Prevalence (%) and abundance (nematodes/dm3 of soil) of Meloidogyne spp. in 61 orchards across 9 regions in Burkina Faso.
| Region | Province | Locality | Latitude | Longitude | Prevalence Melo | Abundance Melo |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Badara | 12.407022 | −3.562287 | 33.33 | 200 |
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Sagala1 | 12.39802 | −3.567907 | 33.33 | 60 |
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Sagala2 | 12.395486 | −3.571156 | 100 | 920 |
| Cascades | Comoe | Karfiguela | 10.69876667 | −4.817066667 | 0 | 0 |
| Cascades | Comoe | Tengrela | 10.68705 | −4.8572 | 83.33 | 358 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna1 | 10.6449828 | −5.052942 | 33.33 | 40 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna2 | 10.667974 | −5.102256 | 66.67 | 30 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna3 | 10.677187 | −5.099382 | 0 | 0 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Koubri1 | 12.202186 | −1.353772 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Koubri2 | 12.201433 | −1.355744 | 33.33 | 60 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Pabre | 12.5443 | −1.5745 | 0 | 0 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Loumbila1 | 12.487557 | −1.407013 | 33.33 | 200 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Loumbila2 | 12.559418 | −1.337209 | 33.33 | 40 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Noungou | 12.521811 | −1.41213 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre1 | 11.4302 | −0.5124 | 100 | 2,240 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre2 | 11.4278 | −0.5156 | 66.67 | 1,590 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre3 | 11.4519 | −0.5143 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bega2 | 11.4254 | −0.4695 | 0 | 0 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Dayassmnoore1 | 11.750413 | −1.349181 | 66.67 | 20 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Dayassmnoore2 | 11.753409 | −1.348793 | 66.67 | 30 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Koupela | 11.7595 | −1.3469 | 0 | 0 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Lilboure | 11.739128 | −1.331465 | 66.67 | 50 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | SaponeTanghin | 12.128827 | −1.562903 | 33.33 | 40 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Timboe | 11.7755 | −1.3287 | 100 | 900 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Ekoulkoala1 | 12.297419 | −2.517648 | 100 | 2,133 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Ekoulkoala2 | 12.300701 | −2.516541 | 66.67 | 700 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Reo | 12.300894 | −2.479187 | 66.67 | 250 |
| Centre-West | Sissili | Zo | 11.099 | −2.0365 | 100 | 1,587 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata1 | 11.7786 | −1.8372 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata2 | 11.7792 | −1.8347 | 100 | 720 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata3 | 11.7812 | −1.8273 | 66.67 | 950 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama1 | 11.335399 | −4.388538 | 100 | 153 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama2 | 11.366845 | −4.380663 | 100 | 60 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama3 | 11.360086 | −4.382549 | 66.67 | 1,100 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama4 | 11.36755 | −4.379316667 | 100 | 147 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama5 | 11.36035 | −4.382866667 | 100 | 353 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama6 | 11.36613333 | −4.381 | 100 | 1,040 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou1 | 11.2474 | −4.4392 | 100 | 320 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou10 | 11.31128333 | −4.412 | 100 | 420 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou2 | 11.2742 | −4.4427 | 100 | 3,940 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou3 | 11.3016 | −4.429 | 100 | 1,660 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou4 | 11.24376667 | −4.428983333 | 100 | 493 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou5 | 11.24835 | −4.439516667 | 66.67 | 970 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou6 | 11.25136667 | −4.440333333 | 66.67 | 100 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou7 | 11.25511667 | −4.444816667 | 83.33 | 432 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou8 | 11.2788 | −4.440866667 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou9 | 11.28433333 | −4.440116667 | 100 | 27 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba1 | 11.095474 | −4.332357 | 100 | 347 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba2 | 11.12648333 | −4.333733333 | 100 | 423 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba3 | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 100 | 267 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Finlande | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 100 | 473 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Flasso | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 66.67 | 220 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Koumbadougou | 11.295473 | −4.627477 | 100 | 133 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Lesso | 11.067135 | −4.345465 | 66.67 | 20 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga1 | 11.305436 | −4.621993 | 33.33 | 320 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga2 | 11.313764 | −4.620531 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga3 | 11.313179 | −4.618558 | 33.33 | 480 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Tuy | Founzan | 11.477695 | −3.255886 | 100 | 333 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa1 | 11.0167 | −2.8261 | 100 | 2,247 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa2 | 11.0142 | −2.8269 | 100 | 1,907 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa3 | 11.0094 | −2.83 | 66.67 | 60 |
Table S2:
Prevalence (%) and abundance (nematodes/dm3 of soil) of Rotylenchulus spp. in 61 orchards across 9 regions in Burkina Faso.
| Region | Province | Locality | Latitude | Longitude | Prevalence Roty | Abundance Roty |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Badara | 12.407022 | −3.562287 | 100 | 18,433 |
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Sagala1 | 12.39802 | −3.567907 | 100 | 1,600 |
| B. Mouhoun | Mouhoun | Sagala2 | 12.395486 | −3.571156 | 100 | 1,567 |
| Cascades | Comoe | Karfiguela | 10.69876667 | −4.817066667 | 100 | 18,927 |
| Cascades | Comoe | Tengrela | 10.68705 | −4.8572 | 100 | 7,497 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna1 | 10.6449828 | −5.052942 | 0 | 0 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna2 | 10.667974 | −5.102256 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Cascades | Leraba | Douna3 | 10.677187 | −5.099382 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Koubri1 | 12.202186 | −1.353772 | 100 | 10,353 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Koubri2 | 12.201433 | −1.355744 | 66.67 | 1,610 |
| Centre | Kadiogo | Pabre | 12.5443 | −1.5745 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Loumbila1 | 12.487557 | −1.407013 | 100 | 27,567 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Loumbila2 | 12.559418 | −1.337209 | 100 | 5,933 |
| Centre | Ziniare | Noungou | 12.521811 | −1.41213 | 100 | 31,987 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre1 | 11.4302 | −0.5124 | 66.67 | 70 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre2 | 11.4278 | −0.5156 | 100 | 20 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bagre3 | 11.4519 | −0.5143 | 66.67 | 1,840 |
| Centre-East | Boulgou | Bega2 | 11.4254 | −0.4695 | 66.67 | 40 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Ekoulkoala1 | 12.297419 | −2.517648 | 100 | 15,433 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Ekoulkoala2 | 12.300701 | −2.516541 | 66.67 | 2,050 |
| Centre-West | Sanguie | Reo | 12.300894 | −2.479187 | 66.67 | 35,100 |
| Centre-West | Sissili | Zo | 11.099 | −2.0365 | 66.67 | 20 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata1 | 11.7786 | −1.8372 | 33.33 | 60 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata2 | 11.7792 | −1.8347 | 100 | 4,413 |
| Centre-West | Ziro | Bakata3 | 11.7812 | −1.8273 | 33.33 | 20 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Dayassmnoore1 | 11.750413 | −1.349181 | 100 | 220 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Dayassmnoore2 | 11.753409 | −1.348793 | 100 | 1,847 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Koupela | 11.7595 | −1.3469 | 100 | 67 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Lilboure | 11.739128 | −1.331465 | 100 | 747 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Sapone-Tanghin | 12.128827 | −1.562903 | 33.33 | 160 |
| Centre-South | Bazega | Timboe | 11.7755 | −1.3287 | 66.67 | 40 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama1 | 11.335399 | −4.388538 | 100 | 5,200 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama2 | 11.366845 | −4.380663 | 100 | 2,093 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama3 | 11.360086 | −4.382549 | 100 | 1,847 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama4 | 11.36755 | −4.379316667 | 100 | 6,853 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama5 | 11.36035 | −4.382866667 | 100 | 773 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Bama6 | 11.36613333 | −4.381 | 100 | 5,213 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou1 | 11.2474 | −4.4392 | 66.67 | 20 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou10 | 11.31128333 | −4.412 | 100 | 1,473 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou2 | 11.2742 | −4.4427 | 100 | 80 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou3 | 11.3016 | −4.429 | 100 | 2,613 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou4 | 11.24376667 | −4.428983333 | 100 | 640 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou5 | 11.24835 | −4.439516667 | 88.88 | 3,723 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou6 | 11.25136667 | −4.440333333 | 66.67 | 1,480 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou7 | 11.25511667 | −4.444816667 | 100 | 5,533 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou8 | 11.2788 | −4.440866667 | 100 | 207 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Diarradougou9 | 11.28433333 | −4.440116667 | 100 | 106 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba1 | 11.095474 | −4.332357 | 100 | 4,493 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba2 | 11.12648333 | −4.333733333 | 100 | 843 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Farako-Ba3 | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 100 | 2,140 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Finlande | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 100 | 1,367 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Flasso | 11.12623333 | −4.333283333 | 100 | 340 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Koumbadougou | 11.295473 | −4.627477 | 100 | 107 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Lesso | 11.067135 | −4.345465 | 100 | 133 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga1 | 11.305436 | −4.621993 | 66.67 | 180 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga2 | 11.313764 | −4.620531 | 100 | 1,213 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Houet | Soungalodaga3 | 11.313179 | −4.618558 | 100 | 15,033 |
| Hauts-Bassins | Tuy | Founzan | 11.477695 | −3.255886 | 100 | 87 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa1 | 11.0167 | −2.8261 | 100 | 1,673 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa2 | 11.0142 | −2.8269 | 66.67 | 110 |
| South-West | Ioba | Ouessa3 | 11.0094 | −2.83 | 0 | 0 |