Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Early-Age Strength Development and Microstructural Mechanisms of CO2-Cured Recycled Weathered Limestone Concrete Cover

Early-Age Strength Development and Microstructural Mechanisms of CO2-Cured Recycled Weathered Limestone Concrete

Open Access
|Apr 2026

References

  1. Tarnocai, C. (1989). Glossary of permafrost and related ground-ice terms. Arctic, 42(3), 289–290. https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic1953
  2. Wu, Q., & Zhang, T. (2008). Recent permafrost warming on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 113, D13108. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009539
  3. Wu, Q., Zhang, Z., & Liu, G. (2021). Relationships between climate warming and engineering stability of permafrost on Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Journal of Engineering Geology, 29(2), 342–352. https://doi.org/10.13544/j.cnki.jeg.2020-084
  4. Kong, X., Doré, G., & Calmel, F. (2019). Thermal modeling of heat balance through embankments in permafrost regions. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 158, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.11.013
  5. Chen, L., Yu, W., Yi, X., et al. (2018). Numerical simulation of heat transfer of the crushed-rock interlayer embankment of Qinghai–Tibet Railway affected by aeolian sand clogging and climate change. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 155, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.07.009
  6. Wang, J., Wu, Q., Yuan, Z., et al. (2020). Soil respiration of alpine meadow is controlled by freeze-thaw processes of active layer in the permafrost region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Cryosphere, 14(9), 2835–2848. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2835-2020
  7. Horgby, Å., Segatto, P. L., Bertuzzo, E., et al. (2019). Unexpected large evasion fluxes of carbon dioxide from turbulent streams draining the world's mountains. Nature Communications, 10, 4888. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12905-z
  8. Yu, W., Hu, D., Han, F., et al. (2020). Heat transfer characteristics of sand-filled embankment in permafrost regions of Tibetan Plateau. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 45(5), 3683–3693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-019-04212-y
  9. Shao, Y., Mirza, M. S., & Wu, X. (2006). CO2 sequestration using calcium-silicate concrete. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 33(6), 776–784. https://doi.org/10.1139/l05-105
  10. Padmalal, A., Kulkarni, K. S., Rawat, P., et al. (2024). Efficacy of accelerated carbonation curing and its influence on the strength development of concrete. Buildings, 14(8), 2573. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082573
  11. Han, X., Yan, J., Huo, Y., et al. (2024). Effect of carbonation curing regime on 3D printed concrete: Compressive strength, CO2 uptake, and characterization. Journal of Building Engineering, 98, 111341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111341
  12. Ning, J., Zha, X., Xiao, J., et al. (2025). Integrated carbonation mixing and curing for cement paste: Enhancing CO2 uptake and early-age performance. Journal of Building Engineering, 113, 113979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113979
  13. Ding, Y., Wu, J., Zhang, X., et al. (2023). Quality improvement of recycled concrete aggregate by accelerated carbonation under different pressure. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, 38, 623–631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11595-023-2738-9
  14. Kalkreuth, J., Ullrich, A., Garbev, K., et al. (2024). Accelerated carbonation of hardened cement paste: Quantification of calcium carbonate via ATR infrared spectroscopy. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 107(4), 2627–2640. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.19546
  15. Lee, O., Malan Parr, J.-L., Zi, G., et al. (2025). Optimizing accelerated carbonation of carbon-eating concrete on early age microstructure and durability improvement. Construction and Building Materials, 491, 142654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.142654
  16. Wang, Y.-C., Lee, M.-G., Wang, W.-C., et al. (2022). CO2 curing on the mechanical properties of Portland cement concrete. Buildings, 12(6), 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12060817
  17. Zhuang, R., Yu, J., Li, Y., et al. (2025). Chelator-enhanced low-concentration CO2 curing of cement paste: A pathway to improved sustainability and CO2 sequestration in construction materials. Journal of Building Engineering, 111, 113295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113295
  18. Ashraf, W., & Olek, J. (2016). Carbonation behavior of hydraulic and non-hydraulic calcium silicates: potential of utilizing low-lime calcium silicates in cement-based materials. Journal of Materials Science, 51, 6173–6191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-016-9909-4
  19. Shi, C., He, P., Tu, Z., et al. (2014). Effect of preconditioning on process and microstructure of carbon dioxide cured concrete. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 42(8), 996–1004. https://doi.org/10.7521/j.issn.04545648.2014.08.07
  20. Saeki, N., Kurihara, R., Ohkubo, T., Teramoto, A., Suda, Y., Kitagaki, R., & Maruyama, I. (2025). Semi-dry natural carbonation at different relative humidities: Degree of carbonation and reaction kinetics of calcium hydrates in cement paste. Cement and Concrete Research, 189, 107777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107777
  21. Han, S. H., Jun, Y., Shin, T. Y., & Kim, J. H. (2020). CO2 Curing Efficiency for Cement Paste and Mortars Produced by a Low Water-to-Cement Ratio. Materials, 13(17), 3883. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13173883
  22. Kim, H., Pei, J., Siddique, S., & Jang, J.-G. (2021). Effects of the Curing Conditions on the Carbonation Curing Efficiency of Ordinary Portland Cement and a Belite-Rich Cement Mortar. Sustainability, 13, 5175. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095175
  23. Driver, J. G., Bernard, E., Patrizio, P., Fennell, P. S., Scrivener, K., & Myers, R. J. (2024). Global decarbonization potential of CO2 mineralization in concrete materials. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121(29), e2313475121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313475121
  24. Zajac, M., Skocek, J., Ben Haha, M., & Deja, J. (2022). CO2 Mineralization Methods in Cement and Concrete Industry. Energies, 15, 3597. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103597
  25. Kikuchi, K., & Kuroda, Y. (2011). Carbon dioxide uptake in demolished and crushed concrete. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 9(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.9.115
  26. Izoret, L., Pernin, T., Potier, J.-M., & Torrenti, J.-M. (2023). Impact of Industrial Application of Fast Carbonation of Recycled Concrete Aggregates. Applied Sciences, 13(2), 849. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13020849
  27. Morin, V., Meyer, V., Huet, B., Briaud, V., & Guillot, X. (2022). Mineral carbonation of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA): From laboratory to pilot tests using industrial CO2 gas stream. Proceedings of the 16th Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Conference (GHGT-16), 23–24. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4283706
  28. Rosa, L., Becattini, V., Gabrielli, P., Andreotti, A., & Mazzotti, M. (2022). Carbon Dioxide Mineralization in Recycled Concrete Aggregates Can Contribute Immediately to Carbon-Neutrality. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 184, 106436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106436
  29. Zajac, M., Skocek, J., Ben Haha, M., & Deja, J. (2021). CO2 mineralization of demolished concrete wastes into a supplementary cementitious material – a new CCU approach for the cement industry. RILEM Technical Letters, 6, 53–60. https://doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.141
  30. Suescum-Morales, D., Fernández-Ledesma, E., González-Caro, Á., et al. (2023). Carbon emission evaluation of CO2 curing in vibro-compacted precast concrete made with recycled aggregates. Materials, 16(6), 2436. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062436
  31. Rostami, V., Shao, Y., & Boyd, A. J. (2012). Carbonation curing versus steam curing for precast concrete production. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 24(9), 1221–1229. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000462
  32. Li, Z., He, Z., & Chen, X. (2019). The Performance of Carbonation-Cured Concrete. Materials, 12(22), 3729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223729
  33. Ba, M., Fang, S., Cheng, W., et al. (2023). Effects of CO2 curing on the properties of pervious concrete in different paste– aggregate ratios. Materials, 16(13), 4581. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134581
  34. Haselbach, L. M., & Thomle, J. N. (2014). An alternative mechanism for accelerated carbon sequestration in concrete. Sustainable Cities and Society, 12, 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2014.01.001
  35. Seo, J. H., Amr, I. T., Park, S. M., Bamagain, R. A., Fadhel, B. A., Kim, G. M., Hunaidy, A. S., & Lee, H. K. (2018). CO2 Uptake of Carbonation-Cured Cement Blended with Ground Volcanic Ash. Materials, 11(11), 2187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11112187
  36. He, J., Zhao, Y., Cui, K., et al. (2025). Mechanisms underlying the carbonation of Portland cement incorporating triethanolamine to enhance CO2 curing effectiveness. Cement and Concrete Composites, 164, 106252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106252
  37. Xian, X., & Shao, Y. (2021). Microstructure of cement paste subject to ambient pressure carbonation curing. Construction and Building Materials, 296, 123652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123652
  38. Zhang, L., Zha, X., Ning, J., et al. (2023). Research status on the application technology of early age carbon dioxide curing. Buildings, 13(4), 957. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040957
  39. Medvedev, V., & Pustovgar, A. (2023). A Review of Concrete Carbonation and Approaches to Its Research under Irradiation. Buildings, 13(8), 1998. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081998
  40. Zhu, C., Jiang, Y., Shang, Q., Ye, Y., & Yang, J. (2023). Study on Kinetics of Carbonization Reaction of Hardened Cement Paste Powder Based on Carbonization Degree. Materials, 16, 2584. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072584
  41. Kim, Y.-J., Sim, S.-R., & Ryu, D.-W. (2023). Experimental Study on Effects of CO2 Curing Conditions on Mechanical Properties of Cement Paste Containing CO2 Reactive Hardening Calcium Silicate Cement. Materials, 16, 7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16227107
  42. Li, Y., Fu, T., Wang, R., et al. (2020). An assessment of microcracks in the interfacial transition zone of recycled concrete aggregates cured by CO2. Construction and Building Materials, 236, 117543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117543
  43. Wu, J., Ding, Y., Xu, P., Zhang, M., Guo, M., & Guo, S. (2022). Effects of carbonated recycled concrete aggregates on the mechanical properties of concrete and the micro-properties of the interfacial transition zone. Ceramics-Silikáty, 66(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.13168/cs.2022.0006
  44. Lu, J., Cai, Z., Gao, Y., Yin, Y., Ma, Z., & Liang, C. (2023). Effects of pretreatment methods on the properties of recycled aggregates and prepared concrete under CO2-curing. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 18, e01826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e01826
  45. Bergmans, J., Kazemi Kamyab, H., Ghosh, D., Van Mierloo, P., Carens, H., & Nielsen, P. (2024). Carbonation of Recycled Concrete Aggregates for New Concrete and Concrete Fines to Make Cement-Free Hollow Blocks. Sustainability, 16, 3494. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083494
  46. Etxeberria, M., & Castillo, S. (2023). How the Carbonation Treatment of Different Types of Recycled Aggregates Affects the Properties of Concrete. Sustainability, 15(4), 3169. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043169
  47. Qin, W., Fan, X., & Jiang, X. (2024). CO2-Accelerated Carbonation Modification for Recycled Coarse Aggregate with Various Original Concrete Strengths and Coarse Aggregate Sizes. Materials, 17, 3567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143567
  48. Bustamante, M., Letelier, V., Wenzel, B., Torres, C., Loyola, E., & Ortega, J. M. (2024). Effect of Accelerated Carbonation on Fine Cement Paste Aggregates. Developments in the Built Environment, 20, 100545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100545
  49. García-González, J., Rodríguez-Robles, D., Juan-Valdés, A., Morán-del Pozo, J. M., & Guerra-Romero, M. I. (2014). Pre-Saturation Technique of the Recycled Aggregates: Solution to the Water Absorption Drawback in the Recycled Concrete Manufacture. Materials, 7, 6224–6236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7096224
  50. Kępniak, M., Chyliński, F., & Woyciechowski, P. (2025). Enhancing the performance of recycled aggregate concrete through optimized pretreatment methods: a microstructural perspective. Scientific Reports, 15, 29998. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-14834-y
  51. Junior, G. A. F., Leite, J. C. T., Mendez, G. d. P., Haddad, A. N., Silva, J. A. F., & da Costa, B. B. F. (2025). A Review of the Characteristics of Recycled Aggregates and the Mechanical Properties of Concrete Produced by Replacing Natural Coarse Aggregates with Recycled Ones—Fostering Resilient and Sustainable Infrastructures. Infrastructures, 10(8), 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080213
  52. Neupane, R. P., Imjai, T., Makul, N., Garcia, R., Kim, B., & Chaudhary, S. (2023). Use of recycled aggregate concrete in structural members: a review focused on Southeast Asia. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2270029
  53. Liu, H., Hua, M., Zhu, P., Chen, C., Wang, X., Qian, Z., & Dong, Y. (2021). Effect of Freeze–Thaw Cycles on Carbonation Behavior of Three Generations of Repeatedly Recycled Aggregate Concrete. Applied Sciences, 11(6), 2643. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062643
  54. Zhu, J., Liu, S., Song, L., Qu, Z., & Wang, H. (2022). Influence of Carbon Dioxide Curing on the Corrosion Resistance of Reinforced Cement Mortar under the External Erosion of NaCl Freeze–Thaw Cycle. Applied Sciences, 12(10), 5061. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105061
  55. Liang, C., Wang, S., Cai, Z., Yin, Y., Gao, Y., Guo, M.-Z., et al. (2024). Effects of CO2 curing methods on frost resistance and mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 20, e02973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e02973
  56. Zhang, H., Romero Rodriguez, C., Dong, H., Gan, Y., Schlangen, E., & Šavija, B. (2020). Elucidating the effect of accelerated carbonation on porosity and mechanical properties of hydrated Portland cement paste using X-ray tomography and advanced micromechanical testing. Micromachines, 11(5), 471. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi11050471
  57. Salcedo, I. R., Cuesta, A., Shirani, S., León-Reina, L., & Aranda, M. A. G. (2021). Accuracy in cement hydration investigations: Combined X-ray microtomography and powder diffraction analyses. Materials, 14, 6953. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226953
  58. Yu, Z., Xu, Z., Liu, C., Cai, L., Dong, H., & Li, T. (2022). Durability and life prediction analysis of recycled aggregate concrete with ceramic waste powder under freeze-thaw conditions based on impact-echo method and Grey-Markov model. Frontiers in Materials, 9, 1060294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2022.1060294
  59. Yao, Z., Luo, L., Qin, Y., Bi, Y., Liu, F., & Yang, Y. (2024). Influence of accelerated carbonation on the performance of recycled concrete containing fly ash, recycled coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate. Materials, 17, 5191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215191
  60. Liu, Q., Cheng, A., Singh, A., & Tam, V. W. Y. (2025a). Performance enhancement of recycled concrete through carbonation during ready-mix and curing. Construction and Building Materials, 458, 139665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.139665
  61. Liu, Q., Cheng, X., Sun, C., Jin, C., & Tam, V. W. Y. (2025b). Impact of carbonization and aggregate properties on modeled recycled concrete: Mechanical characteristics, stress concentration and damage evolution. Construction and Building Materials, 467, 140327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140327
  62. Muhmood, A. A. (2025). Evaluation of the properties of recycled concrete aggregate and their potential use in road paving. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 21(1), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2025-0013
  63. Mousa, H. H., Kadhem, A. A., Al-Bahrani, H. S., Jabal, Q. A., & Alasadi, L. (2024). Study the re-use of construction and demolition waste for friendlier environment: waste concrete and waste granite aggregates. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 20(2), 711–719. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2024-0053
  64. Ahmed, S. Y., Hano, M. M. A., & Hano, S. M. A. (2025). Fracture energy and mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with recycled coarse concrete aggregate exposed to high temperatures. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 21(2), 812–824. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2025-0058
  65. Marcalikova, Z., Gandel, R., Jerabek, J., & Varak, J. (2024). Selected properties and microstructure of concrete with tire rubber granulate as recycled material in construction industry. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 20(2), 754–766. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2024-0057
  66. Mao, S., Lin, Y., & Yue, Z. (2025). Microstructural analysis of freeze–thaw degradation in rubber-modified cement-stabilized crushed stone using X-ray computed tomography. Materials Science-Poland, 43(3), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.2478/msp-2025-0029
  67. Kara De Maeijer, P., Craeye, B., Blom, J., & Bervoets, L. (2021). Crumb Rubber in Concrete—The Barriers for Application in the Construction Industry. Infrastructures, 6(8), 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures6080116
  68. Nourredine, A. (2011). Influence of curing conditions on durability of alkali-resistant glass fibres in cement matrix. Bulletin of Materials Science, 34(4), 775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-011-0194-1
  69. Wei, J., Mo, K. H., & Ling, T.-C. (2023). Roles of subsequent curing on the pH evolution and further hydration for CO2 cured cement pastes. Journal of Building Engineering, 64, 105701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105701
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2026-0094 | Journal eISSN: 2199-6512 (formerly 1336-5835) | Journal ISSN: 1336-5835
Language: English
Submitted on: Dec 15, 2025
Accepted on: Feb 19, 2026
Published on: Apr 23, 2026
Published by: University of Žilina
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2026 Xinwei Wan, Qingzhi Wang, Jianhong Fang, Yan Liu, Yangyang Xie, Gang Song, published by University of Žilina
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.