
Sustainable Self-Sensing Mortar with Hybrid Fillers for Early Damage Detection
By: Shatha Riyadh Ahmed and Raid D. Abdullah

References
- Abdullah, R., Al-Dahawi, A., & Zghair, H. (2022). Mechanical Characteristics and Self-Monitoring Technique of Smart Cementitious Mixtures with Carbon Fiber and Graphite Powder as Hybrid Functional Additives. Engineering and Technology Journal, 40(11), 1537–1547.
https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.30684/etj.2022.134097.1220 . - Abdullah, R. D., Al-Dahawi, A. M., & Zghair, H. H. (2023). Mechanical and self-sensing properties of cementitious composites with hybrid carbon particles/fibers as functional fillers 4th International Scientific Conference of Engineering Sciences and Advances Technologies.
- Abedi, M., Fangueiro, R., & Correia, A. G. (2022). Effects of Electrodes Layout and Filler Scale on Percolation Threshold and Piezoresistivity Performances of a Cementitious-Based Geocomposite. Nanomaterials (Basel), 12(10).
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12101734 . - Ahmed, S., Al-Dahawi, A., & Hassan, S. (2025). Self-sensing engineered cementitious composites with carbon nanotubes and reinforcing fibers for damage detection. Engineering and Technology Journal, 0(0), 1–14. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.2025.156508.1879 . - Al-Dahawi, A., Öztürk, O., Emami, F., Yıldırım, G., & Şahmaran, M. (2016). Effect of mixing methods on the electrical properties of cementitious composites incorporating different carbon-based materials. Construction and Building Materials, 104, 160–168.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.072 . - Al-Dahawi, A., Sarwary, M. H., Öztürk, O., Yıldırım, G., Akın, A., Şahmaran, M., & Lachemi, M. (2016). Electrical percolation threshold of cementitious composites possessing self-sensing functionality incorporating different carbon-based materials. Smart Materials and Structures, 25(10).
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/25/10/105005 . - Al-Dahawi, A., Yıldırım, G., Öztürk, O., & Şahmaran, M. (2017). “Assessment of self-sensing capability of Engineered Cementitious Composites within the elastic and plastic ranges of cyclic flexural loading”. Construction and Building Materials, 145, 1–10. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.236 . - Al-Dahawi, A. M., Abdullah, R. D., & Joni, H. H. (2024). An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials. Open Engineering, 14(1). https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0568 . - Al-Mulla, I. F., Al-Ameeri, A. S., & Al-Attar, T. S. (2024). CREEP Coefficient and Specific Creep of Engineered Cementitious Composite -Bendable Concrete. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 20(1), 377–386.
https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2024-0029 . - Al-Qaessi, F., & Abu-Farah, L. (2010). Activated Carbon Production from Date Stones Using Phosphoric Acid. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 32(14), 1316–1325. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567030802654012 . - Arena, N., Lee, J., & Clift, R. (2016). Life Cycle Assessment of activated carbon production from coconut shells. Journal of Cleaner Production, 125, 68–77.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.073 . - ASTM-C109/C109M. (2005). Standard test method for compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars (using 2-in. or [50-mm] cube specimens). Annual Book of ASTM Standards: 9.
- ASTM-C124-71. (1971). Method of Test for Flow of Portland-Cement Concrete by Use of the Flow Table. In.
- ASTM-C150. (2007). Standard Specification for Portland Cement. In.
- ASTM-C494/C494M. (2019). ASTM C494/C494M, “Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,” Annual book of ASTM standards, 2019. In ASTM International (Vol. 04).
- ASTM-C496–96. (2017). “Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens”. ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States, 4. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0496-96 . - ASTM-C618. (2014). Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete.
https://doi.org/10.1520/c0618-12a . - Azhari, F., & Banthia, N. (2012). Cement-based sensors with carbon fibers and carbon nanotubes for piezoresistive sensing. Cement and Concrete Composites, 34(7), 866–873.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.04.007 . - Ball, A., Youn, S., & Na, S. (2022). Effects of activated carbon on the compressive strength and air content of Portland cement concrete. Advances in Civil, Environmental, & Materials Research (ACEM22).
- Bekzhanova, Z., Memon, S., & Kim, J. (2021). Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites: Review and Perspective. Nanomaterials, 11, 2355.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092355 . - Birgin, H. B., D’Alessandro, A., Laflamme, S., & Ubertini, F. (2021). Hybrid Carbon Microfibers-Graphite Fillers for Piezoresistive Cementitious Composites. Sensors, 21(2).
- Birgin, H. B., D’Alessandro, A., Laflamme, S., & Ubertini, F. (2021). Hybrid Carbon Microfibers-Graphite Fillers for Piezoresistive Cementitious Composites. Sensors, 21(2), 518.
https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/2/518 . - Birgin, H. B., García-Macías, E., D’Alessandro, A., & Ubertini, F. (2023). Self-powered weigh-in-motion system combining vibration energy harvesting and self-sensing composite pavements. Construction and Building Materials, 369.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130538 . - Cao, J., Wen, S., & CHUNG, D. D. L. (2001). “Defect dynamics and damage of cement-based materials, studied by electrical resistance measurement”. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE (36).
- Chen, B., Li, B., Gao, Y., Ling, T.-C., Lu, Z., & Li, Z. (2017). Investigation on electrically conductive aggregates produced by incorporating carbon fiber and carbon black. Construction and Building Materials, 144, 106–114. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.168 . - Chen, P.-W., & Chung, D. (1993). Carbon fiber reinforced concrete as an electrical contact material for smart structures. Smart Materials and Structures.
- Chen, P.-W., & Chung, D. (1996). Concrete as a new strain/stress sensor. COMPOSITES PART B, 27B.
- Chin, C. O., Yang, X., Kong, S. Y., Paul, S. C., Susilawati, & Wong, L. S. (2020). Mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight concrete incorporated with activated carbon as coarse aggregate. Journal of Building Engineering, 31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101347 . - Chung, D. D. L. (2016). Piezoresistive Cement-Based Materials for Strain Sensing. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 13(9), 599–609. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1106/104538902031861 . - Chung, D. D. L. (2020). Self-sensing concrete: from resistance-based sensing to capacitance-based sensing. International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials, 12(1), 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19475411.2020.1843560 . - Chung, D. D. L. (2021). Self-sensing concrete: from resistance-based sensing to capacitance-based sensing. International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials, 12(1), 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19475411.2020.1843560 . - Chung, D. D. L. (2023). A critical review of electrical-resistance-based self-sensing in conductive cement-based materials. Carbon, 203, 311–325. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2022.11.076 . - Cosoli, G., Mobili, A., Tittarelli, F., Revel, G. M., & Chiariotti, P. (2020). Electrical Resistivity and Electrical Impedance Measurement in Mortar and Concrete Elements: A Systematic Review. Applied Sciences, 10(24), 9152.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/24/9152 . - D’Alessandro, A., Meoni, A., & Ubertini, F. (2023). Smart Self-Sensing Cement-Based Composites with Carbon Microfibers: Experimental Tests on Small-Scale Beam Elements. Engineering Proceedings, 56(1), 278.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4591/56/1/278 . - Dinesh, A., Abirami, B., & Moulica, G. (2021). Carbon nanofiber embedded cement composites: Properties and promises as sensor – A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 44, 4166–4172. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.526 . - Dinesh, A., Suji, D., & Pichumani, M. (2023a). Real-time implication of hybrid carbonaceous fibre and powder integrated self-sensing cement composite in health monitoring of beams and columns. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 27(16), 4563–4580.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2023.2194939 . - Dinesh, A., Suji, D., & Pichumani, M. (2023b). Self-sensing cementitious composite sensor with integrated steel fiber and carbonaceous powder for real-time application in large-scale infrastructures. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 353. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2023.114209 - Dinesh, A., Suji, D., & Pichumani, M. (2023c). Self-sensing cementitious composite sensor with integrated steel fiber and carbonaceous powder for real-time application in large-scale infrastructures. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 353, 114209. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2023.114209 - Dinesh, A., Suji, D., Pichumani, M., & Casciati, F. (2023). Concurrent Prospects to Develop Activated Charcoal Reinforced Self-Sensing Cement Composites for Structural Health Monitoring Applications. Structural Control and Health Monitoring, 2023, 1–19. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/9731995 - DING, S. (2021). CARBON NANOTUBE-BASED HIERARCHICAL FILLERS MODIFIED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES FOR SMART STRUCTURES The Hong Kong Polytechnic University].
- Ding, S., Wang, X., Qiu, L., Ni, Y. Q., Dong, X., Cui, Y., Ashour, A., Han, B., & Ou, J. (2022). Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites with Hierarchical Carbon Fiber-Carbon Nanotube Composite Fillers for Crack Development Monitoring of a Maglev Girder. Small, e2206258.
- Ding, Y., Han, Z., Zhang, Y., & Aguiar, J. B. (2016). Concrete with triphasic conductive materials for self-monitoring of cracking development subjected to flexure. Composite Structures, 138, 184–191. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.11.051 - Dong, S., Han, B., Ou, J., Li, Z., Han, L., & Yu, X. (2016). Electrically conductive behaviors and mechanisms of short-cut super-fine stainless wire reinforced reactive powder concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 72, 48–65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.022 - Dong, W., Li, W., Vessalas, K., He, X., Sun, Z., & Sheng, D. (2021). Piezoresistivity deterioration of smart graphene nanoplate/cement-based sensors subjected to sulphuric acid attack. Composites Communications, 23, 100563. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2020.100563 - Donnini, J., Bellezze, T., & Corinaldesi, V. (2018). Mechanical, electrical and self-sensing properties of cementitious mortars containing short carbon fibers. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.06.011 - Elseady, A. A. E., Zhuge, Y., Ma, X., Chow, C. W. K., Lee, I., Zeng, J., & Gorjian, N. (2024). Development of self-sensing cementitious composites by incorporating a two-dimensional carbon-fibre textile network for structural health monitoring. Construction and Building Materials, 415, 135049. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135049 - Frías, M., de la Villa, R. V., de Rojas, M. I. S., Medina, C., Juan Valdés, A., & Jantzen, C. (2011). Scientific Aspects of Kaolinite Based Coal Mining Wastes in Pozzolan/Ca(OH)2 System. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 95(1), 386–391. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-2916.2011.04985.x - Frías, M., Sanchez de Rojas, M. I., García, R., Juan Valdés, A., & Medina, C. (2012). Effect of activated coal mining wastes on the properties of blended cement. Cement and Concrete Composites, 34(5), 678–683. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.02.006 - Frías, M., Vigil de la Villa, R., García, R., Martínez, S., Villar, E., & Vegas, I. (2018). Effect of a high content in activated carbon waste on low clinker cement microstructure and properties. Construction and Building Materials, 184, 11–19. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.216 - FX, S. (2017). CARBON FIBER STRINGS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING APPLICATIONS.
- Górski, M., & Safuta, M. (2025). Functional carbon-based materials for structural health monitoring and protection of concrete structures. Structural Concrete, 26(5), 5370–5390. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.202400841 - Gupta, S., Kua, H. W., & Low, C. Y. (2018). Use of biochar as carbon sequestering additive in cement mortar. Cement and Concrete Composites, 87, 110–129. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.12.009 - Han, B., Wang, Y., Ding, S., Yu, X., Zhang, L., Li, Z., & Ou, J. (2017). Self-sensing cementitious composites incorporated with botryoid hybrid nano-carbon materials for smart infrastructures. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 28(6), 699–727.
- Han, B., Wang, Y., Dong, S., Zhang, L., Ding, S., Yu, X., & Ou, J. (2015). Smart concretes and structures: A review. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 26(11), 1303–1345. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1177/1045389X15586452 - Han, B. G., Yu, Y., Han, B. Z., & Ou, J. P. (2008). Development of a wireless stress/strain measurement system integrated with pressure-sensitive nickel powder-filled cement-based sensors. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 147(2), 536–543. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2008.06.021 - Hao, Y., Shi, C., Bi, Z., Lai, Z., She, A., & Yao, W. (2023). Recent Advances in Properties and Applications of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Smart Cement-Based Composites. Materials, 16(7), 2552.
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/7/2552 - He, S., & Yang, E.-H. (2021). Strategic strengthening of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between microfiber and cement paste matrix with carbon nanofibers (CNFs). Cement and Concrete Composites, 119, 104019. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104019 - Hussain, H. K., Zewair, M. S., & Ahmed, M. A. (2022). High strength concrete beams reinforced with hooked steel fibers under pure torsion. Civil Engineering Journal, 8(01).
- Justo-Reinoso, I., Srubar, W. V., Caicedo-Ramirez, A., & Hernandez, M. T. (2018). Fine aggregate substitution by granular activated carbon can improve physical and mechanical properties of cement mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 164, 750–759. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.181 - Kaarela, O., Koppanen, M., Kesti, T., Kettunen, R., Palmroth, M., & Rintala, J. (2021). Natural organic matter removal in a full-scale drinking water treatment plant using ClO2 oxidation: Performance of two virgin granular activated carbons. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 41.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102001 - Khalil, W. I., & Abdulrazaq, A. (2011). Mechanical Properties of High Performance Carbon Fiber Concrete. Eng. & Tech. Journal, 29(5). https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.26.5.7 - Lekkam, M., Benmounah, A., Kadri, E.-H., Soualhi, H., & Kaci, A. (2019). Influence of saturated activated carbon on the rheological and mechanical properties of cementitious materials. Construction and Building Materials, 198, 411–422. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.257 - Liu, X., Guo, X., Zuo, J., Liu, A., Li, H., Fu, F., Wang, G., Hu, Q., & Shah, S. P. (2025). Smart Cement-Based Materials Reinforced with CNT-Grafted CFs: Preparation and Performance Evaluation. Nanomaterials, 15(11), 823.
https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/15/11/823 - Lu, D., Leng, Z., Lu, G., Wang, D., & Huo, Y. (2023). A critical review of carbon materials engineered electrically conductive cement concrete and its potential applications. International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials, 14(2), 189–215.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19475411.2023.2199703 - Luo, T., Wang, Q., & Fang, Z. (2023). Effect of graphite on the self-sensing properties of cement and alkali-activated fly ash/slag based composite cementitious materials. Journal of Building Engineering, 77, 107493. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107493 - Ma, L., Sun, M., & Zhang, Y. (2024). The Mechanical and Self-Sensing Properties of Carbon Fiber- and Polypropylene Fiber-Reinforced Engineered Cementitious Composites Utilizing Environmentally Friendly Glass Aggregate. Buildings, 14(4).
- Maimaitituersun, N., Wang, J., Wang, D., & Ning, Z. (2025). Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Cementitious Composites Reinforced with Multi-Scale Carbon Fibers. Materials, 18(8).
- Musa, I. U., Gomes, R. A., Sonego, M., & Gomes, G. F. (2025). Advances in embedded sensor technologies for structural health monitoring of composite structures: a comprehensive review. Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, 1–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10589759.2025.2581826 - Na, S., Lee, S., & Youn, S. (2021). Experiment on Activated Carbon Manufactured from Waste Coffee Grounds on the Compressive Strength of Cement Mortars. Symmetry, 13(4). https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13040619 - Neme, I., Gonfa, G., & Masi, C. (2022). Activated carbon from biomass precursors using phosphoric acid: A review. Heliyon, 8(12), e11940. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11940 - Nuruzzaman, M., Sarker, P. K., & Shaikh, F. U. A. (2023). The interfacial transition zone microstructure of ground ferronickel slag incorporated self-compacting concrete investigated by nanoindentation. Journal of Building Engineering, 71, 106437. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106437 - Papanikolaou, I., Litina, C., Zomorodian, A., & Al-Tabbaa, A. (2020). Effect of Natural Graphite Fineness on the Performance and Electrical Conductivity of Cement Paste Mixes for Self-Sensing Structures. Materials (Basel), 13(24). https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13245833 - Parlayıcı, Ş., Bahadir, M., & Pehlivan, E. (2025). Nanoporous carbonaceous materials (biochar and activated carbon): recent progress and potential applications for arsenic removal. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 46(13), 2026–2047.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2024.2369881 - Parvaneh, V., & Khiabani, S. H. (2018). Mechanical and piezoresistive properties of self-sensing smart concretes reinforced by carbon nanotubes. Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, 26(11), 993–1000.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2018.1432789 - Penna, R., Lambiase, A., Landi, G., Lovisi, G., & Feo, L. (2025). Development and Application of Self-Sensing Materials for Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Engineering Infrastructures. Engineering Proceedings, 112(1), 16.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4591/112/1/16 - Qiu, L., Dong, S., Yu, X., & Han, B. (2021). Self-sensing ultra-high performance concrete for in-situ monitoring. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 331.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2021.113049 - Ranade, R., Zhang, J., Lynch, J. P., & Li, V. C. (2014). Influence of micro-cracking on the composite resistivity of Engineered Cementitious Composites. Cement and Concrete Research, 58, 1–12.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.01.002 - Roopa, A. K., & Hunashyal, A. M. (2021). Evaluating Self-sensing Property of Carbon Fibre Cement Composite by experimental study and Finite Element Modelling For Structural Health Monitoring Applications. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1070(1), 012041.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1070/1/012041 - Roshan, M. J., Abedi, M., Gomes Correia, A., Fangueiro, R., & Mendes, P. M. (2024). A Multifunctional Cementitious Composite for Pavement Subgrade. Materials, 17(3), 621.
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/17/3/621 - Sedaghatdoost, A., & Behfarnia, K. (2018). Mechanical properties of Portland cement mortar containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes at elevated temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 482–489. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.095 - Shin, P.-S., Baek, Y.-M., Kim, J.-H., & Kwon, D.-J. (2023). The factor influencing self-sensing property of carbon fiber. Composites Science and Technology, 238, 110017. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2023.110017 - SikaWrap®FX-50C. (2020). Carbon fibre cord for structural strengthening, connection and anchoring of SikaWrap® strengthening systems (
- Suchorzewski, J., Prieto, M., & Mueller, U. (2020). An experimental study of self-sensing concrete enhanced with multi-wall carbon nanotubes in wedge splitting test and DIC. Construction and Building Materials, 262. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120871 - Taher, M. J., Al-Attar, T. S., & Al-Adili, A. S. (2024). Compatibility and Mechanical Performance of High-Strength Self-Compacting Concrete Produced with Recycled Glass Powder. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 20(2), 1107–1119.
https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2024-0080 - Thomoglou, A. K., Falara, M. G., Gkountakou, F. I., Elenas, A., & Chalioris, C. E. (2022). Influence of Different Surfactants on Carbon Fiber Dispersion and the Mechanical Performance of Smart Piezoresistive Cementitious Composites. Fibers, 10(6), 49.
https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6439/10/6/49 - Tran-SET. (2020). Influence of Powder Activated Carbon (PAC) in Fly Ash on the Properties of Concrete.
- Triana-Camacho, D. A., D’Alessandro, A., Bittolo Bon, S., Malaspina, R., Ubertini, F., & Valentini, L. (2024). Piezoresistive, Piezocapacitive and Memcapacitive Silk Fibroin-Based Cement Mortars. Sensors, 24(22), 7357.
https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/22/7357 - Triana-Camacho, D. A., Miranda, D. A., & Quintero-Orozco, J. H. (2024). Exploring the Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Electrical Impedance in Cement-Based Composites Incorporating Gold Nanoparticles. Materials, 17(16), 3972.
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/17/16/3972 - Tu, K., Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Yang, H., Tao, J., & Zeng, Q. (2025). Synergistic Microstructures, Mechanical Properties, and Piezoresistive Performance Improvement of Nanoengineered Cementitious Composites by CNT and GNP. Buildings, 15(22), 4104.
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/15/22/4104 - ViscoCrete®-5930, S. (2015). High Performance Superplasticiser Concrete Admixture (
- Wang, H., Zhang, A., Zhang, L., Wang, Q., Yang, X.-h., Gao, X., & Shi, F. (2020). Electrical and piezoresistive properties of carbon nanofiber cement mortar under different temperatures and water contents. Construction and Building Materials, 265.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120740 - Wang, L., & Aslani, F. (2021). Piezoresistivity performance of cementitious composites containing activated carbon powder, nano zinc oxide and carbon fibre. Construction and Building Materials, 278.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122375 - Wang, L., & Aslani, F. (2022). Self-sensing performance of cementitious composites with functional fillers at macro, micro and nano scales. Construction and Building Materials, 314, 125679. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125679 - Wang, L., Aslani, F., & Mukherjee, A. (2022). Development of 3D printable self-sensing cementitious composites. Construction and Building Materials, 337.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127601 - Wang, Y., Sun, S., & Zhang, L. (2023). Self-sensing cementitious composites incorporating hybrid NGPs/CNTs/NCBs for structural health monitoring. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 357. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2023.114365 - Wang, Z., Luan, C., Liao, G., Yao, X., & Fu, J. (2019). Mechanical and self-monitoring behaviors of 3D printing smart continuous carbon fiber-thermoplastic lattice truss sandwich structure. Composites Part B: Engineering, 176.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107215 - Wen, S., & Chung, D. D. L. (2007). Partial replacement of carbon fiber by carbon black in multifunctional cement–matrix composites. Carbon, 45(3), 505–513. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2006.10.024 - Xing, K., Li, H., & Wang, X. (2025). Durability enhancement of prestressed concrete using smart materials: integrating self-healing mechanisms and monitoring systems. Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure, 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23789689.2025.2574197 - Xu, G., Beaudoin, J. J., Jolicoeur, C., & Pagé, M. (2000). The effect of a polynaphthalene sulfonate superplasticizer on the contribution of the interfacial transition zone to the electrical resistivity of mortars containing silica and limestone fine aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research, 30(5), 683–691. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00222-2 - Xu, J., Wang, S., Bai, J., Li, Y., & Quan, X. (2022). Study on Durability and Piezoresistivity of Cement-Based Piezoelectric Materials Mixed with Carbon Fiber and Iron Tailings under Salt-Freezing Erosion. Buildings, 12(8), 1150.
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/12/8/1150 - Yagoub, M., Mellas, M., Benchabane, A., & Zatar, A. (2022). Experimental characterization of a functionally graded composite using recycled steel fiber. Civil Engineering Journal, 8(5), 879–894.
- Yıldırım, G., Öztürk, O., Al-Dahawi, A., Afşın Ulu, A., & Şahmaran, M. (2020). Self-sensing capability of Engineered Cementitious Composites: Effects of aging and loading conditions. Construction and Building Materials, 231. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117132 . - Zhang, W., Yin, C., Ma, F., & Huang, Z. (2018). Mechanical Properties and Carbonation Durability of Engineered Cementitious Composites Reinforced by Polypropylene and Hydrophilic Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibers. Materials (Basel), 11(7). https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071147 . - Zheng, C., Liu, Z., Xu, J., Li, X., & Yao, Y. (2017). Compressive Strength and Microstructure of Activated Carbon-fly Ash Cement Composites. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1759080 .
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2026-0084 | Journal eISSN: 2199-6512 (formerly 1336-5835) | Journal ISSN: 1336-5835
Language: English
Submitted on: Sep 14, 2025
Accepted on: Dec 17, 2025
Published on: Mar 18, 2026
Published by: University of Žilina
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2026 Shatha Riyadh Ahmed, Raid D. Abdullah, published by University of Žilina
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.