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Damage Detection in Concrete Beams through Cement-based Piezoelectric Composites Polarized under Low Electric Fields Cover

Damage Detection in Concrete Beams through Cement-based Piezoelectric Composites Polarized under Low Electric Fields

Civil and Environmental Engineering
Volume 22 (2026): Issue 2 (June 2026)
By: ,  ,   and    
Open Access
|Jun 2026
Figures & tables

Figures & Tables

Figure 1:

Sensor raw material

Figure 2:

The disk-like CPCs

Table 1:

Polling condition

CodesElectric Field [V/mm]Duration [Minutes]Temperature [°C]
C125040150
C225060150
C337540150
C437560150
Figure 3:

Sensor and beam preparation

Table 2:

Load increments

Max. Flexural Load1330 [kg]
Incremental Load
20%266
50%665
60%798
70%931
80%1064
90%1197
Figure 4:

Four-point bending test setup

Table 3:

The effective frequency range

VariationEffective Frequency Range [kHz]Average Difference [%]
C1610–65085
C2430–73021
C3660–72040
C4510–7708
Figure 5:

Comparison of conductance response recorded from all tested beams

Figure 6:

Percentage difference in conductance between left and right sensors within the effective frequency range

Table 4:

The standard deviation of conductance

VariationLoad Stages [%]Standard Deviation (S)
Left SensorRight Sensor
C1 (610–650 kHz)03.407 ×10−73.975 ×10−7
205.973 ×10−71.988 ×10−7
507.721 ×10−73.715 ×10−7
606.341 ×10−74.184 ×10−7
706.596 ×10−73.385 ×10−7
806.434 ×10−76.133 ×10−19
C2 (430–730 kHz)04.419 ×10−64.338 ×10−6
202.469 ×10−62.876 ×10−6
502.758 ×10−62.247 ×10−6
603.900 ×10−62.134 ×10−6
703.916 ×10−61.951 ×10−6
803.102 ×10−61.840 ×10−6
902.638 ×10−61.819 ×10−6
C3 (660–720 kHz)01.069E-062.005 ×10−7
202.742 ×10−71.004 ×10−6
504.681 ×10−71.074 ×10−6
601.048 ×10−64.357 ×10−7
702.374 ×10−72.736 ×10−7
803.286 ×10−72.757 ×10−6
C4 (510–770 kHz)03.787 ×10−62.926 ×10−6
202.858 ×10−62.847 ×10−6
502.569 ×10−62.630 ×10−6
601.825 ×10−62.572 ×10−6
702.040 ×10−62.839 ×10−6
802.622 ×10−62.667 ×10−6
Figure 7:

Final damage condition of the tested beam after four-point bending failure

Table 5:

Range of conductance RMSD

VariationRange of Conductance RMSD [-]
C10,0032–0,0239
C20,0424–0,1275
C30,0149–0,0803
C40,0675–0,1281
Table 6:

The standard deviation of RMSD

VariationStandard Deviation [-]
C10,0105 ± 0,0079
C20,0784 ± 0,0382
C30,0340 ± 0,0224
C40,1025 ± 0,0117
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2026-0064 | Journal eISSN: 2199-6512 (formerly 1336-5835) | Journal ISSN: 1336-5835
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Language: English
Page range: 924 - 940
Submitted on: Oct 9, 2025
Accepted on: Nov 5, 2025
Published on: Jun 19, 2026
Published by: University of Žilina
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year
Keywords:
Cement-based Piezoelectric Composite,
Cement-based Sensor,
Lead Zirconate Titanate,
Polarization Process,
Structural Health Monitoring
Related subjects:
Business and economics,
Business management,
Industries,
Environmental management

© 2026 Gati Hayu, Wahyuniarsih Sutrisno, Kiki Wulandari, Priyo Suprobo, published by University of Žilina
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 22 (2026): Issue 2 (June 2026)
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