Meat quality of indigenous pig breeds in selected countries of central and southwestern Europe – a review

Among the native Italian breeds, literature provides complete data on Cinta Senese, Apulo-Calabrese, Nero Siciliano, and Mora Romagnola. The fattening performance and slaughter procedures are presented in Table 2. Nero Siciliano is a breed from the island of Sicily in southern Italy that is traditionally reared under extensive conditions (Pugliese et al., 2004). It is characterised by the highest average daily gain (ADG) among Italian breeds, reaching up to 600g per day, which suggests better feed efficiency or adaptation for faster finishing (Bozzi et al., 2019). The lowest ADG was found in Cinta Senese (~ 400 g) and Apulo-Calabrese (ADG of ~300–400 g) (Caparra et al., 2023; Sirtori et al., 2014). Considering the slaughter procedures, Mora Romangola has the thickest backfat layer. Mora Romagnola comes from the Emilia–Romagna region in northern Italy. It is a slow-growing, heavy-weight type of pig (Bozzi et al., 2019), with the fat thickness ranging from 57 mm (at the last rib) to 62 mm (over the gluteus medius) (Fortina et al., 2005). Apulo-Calabrese and Mora Romagnola have the highest yields (~80–83%), making them productive in terms of meat output (Caparra et al., 2023; Fortina et al., 2005).

A similar balance between growth potential and product quality is also evident in Spain. The Iberian pig, the country’s most iconic native breed from the southwestern Iberian Peninsula (Tejeda et al., 2020), thrives in the extensive dehesa system, which enhances carcass quality while preserving the sensory characteristics of Iberian meat (Robina et al., 2013; Rodríguez-Estévez et al., 2009). To adapt to modern market needs, crossbreeding with Duroc has been introduced, improving economic efficiency while maintaining the high quality of dry-cured products such as Jamón Ibérico and Lomo Ibérico (Carrapiso et al., 2015). Quality depends on a combination of the genetics, the management system, and the final fattening diet (Ortiz et al., 2020). These factors are formalised in the Iberian pig quality standard (Real Decreto 4/2014, 2014), which defines fattening periods exceeding 12 months and slaughter weights up to 200 kg (Ayuso et al., 2018). In contrast, the Porc Negre Mollorquí reaches lower slaughter weights (~120 kilograms) and has a lower ADG (410 g vs. Iberian 563 g) (Ayuso et al., 2018; Serrano et al., 2009; Tibau et al., 2019). Another Spanish breed, the Porco Celta, differs in carcass characteristics, displaying the thinnest backfat (43–48 mm) (Franco et al., 2014; 2016).

In France, fewer breeds are documented, with the Gasconne pig being the main example (Table 1). It is a native breed of pig that survives in the foothills of the Pyrenees in southwestern France. This breed is characterised by a slow growth rate and a variable daily weight gain, with the adult body weight reaching 300 kg (Mercat et al., 2019). The slaughter yield for these pigs is 80%, and the backfat thickness is 44–50 mm (Lebret et al., 2021).

Portugal also contributes valuable genetic diversity with two traditional breeds: the Alentejano and the Bisaro. The Bisaro breed is maintained in northern Portugal, with the highest concentration of farms and animals observed in the Trás-os-Montes and Minho regions (Santos Silva et al., 2019). The meat from these animals is often smoked, which is typical for this region. The breed is characterised by slow growth (ADG ~390 g) and kept to a body weight of up to 180 kg (Santos Silva et al., 2019). Compared to the Bisaro pig, the Alentejano can reach greater ADG, from 330 to 580 g.

Most Central European countries have only a few native pig breeds, often adapted to traditional fat-based production (Table 1). In Slovenia, the Krškopolje pig – the only autochthonous breed – originates from Lower Carniola (Kastelic & Čandek-Potokar, 2013). Similarly, in neighbouring Croatia, one of the three native breeds, the Black Slavonian pig, is known for producing lard, bacon, and traditional high-quality meat products (Jelić et al., 2023). Both breeds share a common trait of developing a thick backfat layer, underlining their role in regional fat-rich culinary traditions. A comparable focus on fat production is also evident in the Mangalica, a Hungarian breed that traces its roots to the Serbian Šumadija. The Sumadija was brought to Hungary in the 19th century and crossed with local breeds such as the Alfoldi, Bakony, and Szalonta (Hoha et al., 2016; Addo & Jung, 2022). The Mangalica fatteners are slaughtered at an average body weight of 130 kg and are characterised by 65–70% fat in the carcass (Egerszegi et al., 2003). Poland, by contrast, has preserved three native breeds with a more balanced profile: Puławska, Złotnicka Spotted, and Złotnicka White. The Puławska, the country’s oldest native pig, combines heritage with productivity, reaching ADG values over 800 g/day (Babicz et al., 2020), making it one of the fastest-growing native breeds in Europe. Currently, this breed is a transitional form between the fat-meat type and the meat type. Among all Polish native breeds, Złotnicka Spotted is characterised by the thickest backfat layer of 41.3 mm, and at the same time, the lowest meat yield, of 41.83 % (Bocian et al., 2012; Szulc et al., 2012). As for Eastern Europe, only the Ukrainian Mirgorod pig is described in the literature. It was created in the Poltava region in Ukraine due to crossing the Ukrainian domestic pigs of variegated colours with boars of large white, Berkshire, and Tamworth breeds (Transpov, 2016). Mirgorod pigs are characterised by an average daily gain of 630 g, which places them among the fastest-growing native pigs in Europe (Tsereniuk et al., 2023). The Preštice Black-Pied Pig is the only indigenous Czech pig breed, developed in the 19th century through crossing local animals with English and German breeds. It is classified as a fat-meat type, traditionally used in the production of regional pork products due to its higher backfat thickness and moderate intramuscular fat (2.3–2.8%). Carcasses of pigs slaughtered at 94–115 kg show lean meat yields of around 48.8% and fat depths exceeding 36 mm. This breed is valued for its robustness, adaptability, and contribution to preserving Czech culinary heritage (Nevrkla et al. 2021). To summarise, most of the reviewed native breeds have a similar dressing yield between 70% and over 80%, and the lean meat content in the carcass is on average 40%. The highest daily gains were reported for Mirgorod (Ukraine), Puławska (Poland), Nero Siciliano (Italy), while the thickest backfat layer was in Mora Romagnola (Italy), and Mangalica (Hungary).

The most crucial physicochemical parameters of pork from selected native pig breeds are presented in Table 3. The parameters described in this chapter (i.e., pH, colour, water loss, and Warner–Bratzler shear force) were measured on the longissimus thoracis et lumborum (referred to as the LTL).

The pH value is most commonly recorded in three time periods postmortem: 45 minutes (pH_{45 min}), 24 hours (pH_{24 h}), and 48 hours (pH_{48 h}). The pH value indicates the extent of changes occurring in the meat and indicates its quality and culinary suitability. Meat obtained directly after slaughter is characterised by a pH of 6.8–7.3. In this state, such pork has the highest capacity to bind water but has an unfavourable palatability and tenderness. During the progressive post-slaughter changes resulting from glycolytic processes, the pH value of the meat decreases until it reaches the ultimate level. This depends on the species, preslaughter stress, degree of bleeding, cooling, or content of fat and connective tissue in the meat. All the breeds had very similar pH values measured between 45 minutes and 24 hours postmortem. The pH_24h ranged from 5.44 in the Bisaro breed (Martins et al., 2020) to 6.15 units in the Roma Romagnola (Fortina et al., 2005). Their highest values of pH ultimate (6.57 units) were reported in pork from the Mora Romagnola pigs (Fortina et al., 2005). For Prestice Black-Pied pigs, Nevrkla et al. (2018) report pH_45min is 6.29 and pH_24h is 5.65, values which are somewhat higher than in many commercial hybrids and indicate good meat stability. The lowest pH_{24 h} values (< 5.5) were found in the meat of Porto Celta (Spain|), Bisaro (Portugal), and Mangalista (Hungary).

Another parameter that has been examined in most publications is meat colour (CIE - Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage), which includes three main coordinates: L* (lightness), a* (redness), and b* (yellowness), and allows for quality classification. It is also no less important in the context of consumer preference studies. The primary muscle’s pigment, myoglobin, converts into different chemical forms, depending on the storage conditions, including oxygen availability, temperature, and the final pH value in meat (Suman & Joseph, 2013). Consumers usually prefer meat with an intense, bright red colour. However, various factors such as breed, housing system, and nutrition, affect meat colour, thus the values reported in studies often show a wide range. Studies show that an L* value in the range of 49–60 for the LTL is perceived as desirable by consumers (Warriss & Brown, 1995). The L* (lightness) was the lowest (~40.0 units) in pork of the Iberian pigs (Spain), Mangalitsa (Hungary), and Mora Romagnola (Italy), meaning that those pigs had the darkest meat. Another essential colour coordinate is redness, marked with a*. The reddest meat (a*> 10.0 units) was found in Nero Siciliano (Italy), Cinta Senese (Italy), Porto Celta (Spain), and Alentejano (Portugal). The highest value was recorded for the Black Slavonian pig (a*= 20.02) (Karolyi et al., 2004). These findings suggest a clear interaction between pH decline and colour, reinforcing their joint role in determining consumer perception.

The ability of meat to retain water—both during storage (drip loss) and heat treatment (cooking loss)—is also influenced by pH and protein structure, creating another layer of association with the parameters above. Meat has the property of retaining water under the influence of force, and it is the water capacity (WHC) (Kilic et al., 2023; Torres Filho et al., 2017). On average, 90% of the total water is found in muscle proteins, and the remaining 10% is retained by connective tissue. A critical parameter of processed meat during heat treatment is cooking loss. During this process, the moisture content in the heat-treated product is significantly reduced (Vujadinović et al., 2014). The LTL of native pigs is characterised by a cooking loss of 14.52–35.92%. The lowest value for this parameter was recorded for the Gasconne pig - 14.5% (Lebret et al., 2021). In contrast, just over 17% was obtained for the Alentejano breed (17.7%) and the Cinta Senese pig breed (17.94%) (Martins et al., 2020; Sirtori et al., 2014). The lowest drip loss value was recorded for the Cinta Senese breed, at 0.7% (Pugliese et al., 2005), whereas the highest value, 8.8%, was obtained for the Mangalica (Debrecéni et al., 2018). The methodology may differ slightly between publications, which could constitute an additional source of variation. The type of heat treatment influences water loss, and it has been shown that meat cooked at temperatures between 60°C and 80°C exhibits lower water loss, resulting in more balanced and beneficial cooking loss compared to heat treatment by baking (Vujadinović et al., 2014). It has also been shown that the pH during meat storage affects water loss, with higher pH levels resulting in lower losses (Drummond & Sun, 2006). Cooking loss has a wide range among the native pig breeds (14.52–35.92%, Table 3), with the Gasconne pig showing the lowest value at 14.5%, indicating well-developed WHC. The Alentejano and Cinta Senese also have relatively low cooking losses (~17.7% and 17.94% respectively). The Cinta Senese again shows good WHC with the lowest drip loss (0.7%) (Pugliese et al., 2005; Sirtori et al., 2014; Aquilani et al., 2019), while the Puławska breed shows a much higher value, reaching up to 24.89 %, suggesting poorer ability to hold moisture (Wojtysiak & Połtowicz, 2014; Bogucka & Kapelański, 2016; Debrecéni et al., 2018; Milczarek et al., 2019; Milczarek, 2021).

Finally, texture, commonly measured as Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF), integrates the above parameters into the eating quality perceived by consumers. Tenderness depends not only on muscle structure but also on WHC and pH, which affect juiciness and fibre resistance. The measured parameters are typically shear force (WBSF), shear energy, and Young’s modulus. The shear force was chosen because it was the most prominent type of analysis in the cited literature. Table 3 presents the values for this parameter obtained using meat samples tested under various conditions. Notably, some analyses were performed on raw meat, while others were performed on thermally processed samples, resulting in a wide range of values. The values for WBSF were given in several units, as reported in the source publications. Pugliese et al. (2004) and Sirtori et al. (2014) examined the WBSF of fresh meat, which was an average of 10 kg (Nero Siciliano and Cinta Senese). Some of the publications in Table 3 reported values for this parameter in kg/cm². In this case, the highest value was recorded for the Iberian breed (4.33 kg/cm²), and the lowest value was recorded for the Porco Celta breed (3.6 kg/cm²) (Franco et al., 2014; Fernández-Barroso et al., 2020). In turn, the highest values reported by the authors were shown for the Cinta Senese breed (94–99 N), and the lowest values were reported for the Gasconne breed (24.3 N) (Pugliese et al., 2005; Lebret et al., 2021).

The comparison in Table 4 shows that the protein content in the LTL is relatively uniform, generally ranging from 20% to 25%. The lowest protein content was observed in Mangalica pigs (19–21%), as reported in the studies of Parunović et al. (2012) and Nchama et al. (2023). While protein provides structural and nutritional value, the balance between protein and intramuscular fat (IMF) ultimately shapes the sensory and technological properties in pork. The IMF content, which determines marbling, has been repeatedly identified as a key driver of meat palatability and juiciness (Teixeira et al., 2021). It is generally recommended that its level in the LTL muscle averages around 2.5% (Sládek & Dračková, 2020). In the cited publications in Table 4, the IMF does not exceed 9%, but values as low as 1.3% have been reported, for instance, in the Mangalica breed (Imrich et al., 2020). Such variation may stem from differences in breed genetics and methodological inconsistencies across studies. Beyond genetics, environmental and management factors—such as slaughter age, body weight, and feeding regime—play a central role in IMF deposition (Lebret, 2008; Wood et al., 2008). Energy-rich diets with high starch-to-protein ratios, lipid supplementation, and extended finishing periods typically increase IMF levels, while restricted feeding and high-fibre diets can reduce them. Thus, IMF represents a complex trait shaped by the interaction between breed and management, directly influencing not only marbling but also the nutritional quality of pork (De Tonnac et al., 2023).

This link between the IMF and nutritional value becomes even more evident when considering the fatty acid profile of native breeds. The composition of fatty acids—particularly the balance of saturated, monounsaturated (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)—is increasingly recognised as a determinant of the contribution of pork to human health (Li et al., 2015). The contents of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their proportions are associated with human diseases, including obesity and cardiovascular diseases, and a high content of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and a low ratio of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are more beneficial (Simopoulos 2016). The recommended n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio ranges from 1:1 to 4:1 (Simopoulos, 2002, 2006). Still, nutritional standards state that the proper ratio of n-6 to n-3 PUFA in a daily diet should be in the range of 6:1 to 4:1 (Grześkowiak et al., 2010). The n-6/n-3 ratio in pork can be influenced by the animal’s diet, breed, and husbandry system. In Table 4, the ratio of n-6 to n-3 PUFAs varies between breeds and significantly deviates from the recommended value. The values closest to the ratio of 6:1 were found for three native breeds: Apulo-Calabrian (n-6/n-3= 1.99) (Scerra et al., 2024), Gascon (n-6/n-3= 6.1–6.2) (Mercat et al., 2019) and Prestice black pied breed, which had 6.7:1 (Nevrkla et al. 2021). A less favorable n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio was noted in Cinta Senese kept indoors (24.4), and Pulawska (up to 29.4). The highest MUFA content was found in the meat of the Nero Siciliano breed: 53% (Pugliese et al., 2004) and in pork from native breeds from Spain and France, for which the value of this parameter ranged from 49.5 (Porco Celta) to 52–57.1% (Porco Celta and Gasconne) (Tejeda et al., 2020; Lebret et al., 2021; Pardo et al., 2021). Lower MUFA levels were observed in some Cinta Senese (49.9%) and Porco Celta (49.6%) groups, though still within a favorable range. The last parameter included in Table 4 is the total PUFA content. The highest value, 15.7%, was recorded for the Apulo-Calabrese breed, whereas the lowest value, 3.39%, was recorded for the meat of the Pulawska pigs (Milczarek, 2021). PUFA content was low in Iberian (6.5–6.8%) and Mangalica (5.9–15.6%) – indicating more stable fat with less susceptibility to oxidation. These findings confirm that IMF quantity and fatty acid quality are inseparably linked characteristics—both influenced by breed genetics, diet, and management—and together they determine not only consumer satisfaction but also the nutritional value of pork. MUFA levels are consistently high in Mediterranean and Central European fatty-type breeds (Iberian, Mangalica, Pulawska), reflecting their traditional selection for meat quality and flavour. Native Northern and Eastern European breeds tend to have higher PUFA than Iberian or Mangalica, which may impact fat firmness and shelf life negatively but contribute to a healthier lipid profile. Breeds raised in outdoor/free-range systems often show a better (lower) n-6/n-3 ratio, highlighting both genetic and environmental influences.