Table 1
Characteristics of the sample and group differences in autonomy, individual arrangements and intention to leave (total N = 769).
| N (%) | PROCEDURAL AUTONOMY M (SD) | INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: SCHEDULE FLEXIBILITY M (SD) | INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: TASK AND WORK RESPONSIBILITIES M (SD) | INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: FINANCIAL INCENTIVES M (SD) | INTENTION TO LEAVE M (SD) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | 769 (100) | 3.47 (2.55) | 3.11 (2.78) | 2.96 (3.09) | 3.32 (3.04) | 1.98 (2.52) |
| Age | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | *** | |
| 55–61 | 549 (70.4) | 3.46 (2.55) | 3.04 (2.75) | 2.91 (3.09) | 3.37 (3.06) | 2.20 (2.55) |
| 62–70 | 220 (28.6) | 3.50 (2.56) | 3.25 (2.84) | 3.07 (3.10) | 3.20 (3.01) | 1.45 (2.38) |
| Gender | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | |
| Female | 692 (90.0) | 3.41 (2.57) | 3.09 (2.79) | 2.92 (3.09) | 3.33 (3.07) | 1.95 (2.48) |
| Male | 77 (10.0) | 3.96 (2.28) | 3.23 (2.69) | 3.27 (3.05) | 3.19 (2.79) | 2.22 (2.91) |
| Occupational Class position | *** | *** | ** | ns. | ns. | |
| Unskilled workers (UW) | 207 (26.9) | 2.15 (2.09) | 2.70 (2.49) | 2.51 (2.58) | 3.13 (2.95) | 2.18 (2.73) |
| Skilled workers (SW) | 297 (38.6) | 2.36 (1.89) | 2.66 (2.54) | 3.18 (3.17) | 3.39 (3.15) | 2.09 (2.48) |
| Lower-grade service class (LSC) | 199 (25.9) | 4.91 (2.11) | 3.81 (2.94) | 3.37 (3.19) | 3.14 (2.88) | 1.64 (2.29) |
| Higher-grade service class (HSC) | 66 (8.6) | 6.87 (1.46) | 3.77 (3.35) | 2.14 (2.78) | 4.12 (3.28) | 2.0 (2.69) |
| Poor self-rated health | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | *** | |
| Yes | 71 (12.2) | 3.05 (2.52) | 2.87 (2.76) | 2.78 (2.84) | 2.66 (2.84) | 3.09 (2.86) |
| No | 511 (87.8) | 3.56 (2.56) | 3.14 (2.81) | 2.92 (3.11) | 3.38 (3.06) | 1.85 (2.45) |
| Organizational tenure | * | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | |
| < 5 years | 261 (35.1) | 3.81 (2.71) | 3.17 (2.75) | 2.90 (3.00) | 3.14 (2.89) | 2.09 (2.64) |
| ≥ 5 years | 483 (64.9) | 3.28 (2.43) | 3.08 (2.80) | 3.00 (3.15) | 3.41 (3.12) | 1.90 (2.45) |
| Foreign born | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | ns. | |
| Yes | 141 (24.3) | 3.22 (1.91) | 3.45 (2.90) | 3.46 (3.35) | 3.51 (3.33) | 2.11 (2.33) |
| No | 440 (75.7) | 3.57 (2.71) | 3.00 (2.77) | 2.76 (2.98) | 3.25 (2.96) | 1.96 (2.60) |
[i] Note: All indices are measured on a scale from 0 to 10. Significance of group differences was assessed using the Kruskal-Wallis H test (>2 groups) and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (2 groups). *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.
Table 2
Measurement models.
| AUTONOMY AND INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENTS | INTENTION TO LEAVE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| COEF. a | CI | P | COEF. a, b | CI | P | |
| PROCEDURAL AUTONOMY | ||||||
| How can you adapt your work if you feel tired and fatigued, have aches and pains, a cold or similar? I can… | ||||||
| Performance | 0.912 | 0.863–0.962 | *** | – | – | – |
| Carry out necessary work and postpone the rest (PER1) | 0.919 | 0.888–0.949 | *** | – | – | – |
| Choose among work tasks (PER2) | 0.908 | 0.869–0.947 | *** | – | – | – |
| Work at a slower pace (PER3) | 0.714 | 0.668–0.760 | *** | – | – | – |
| Duration | 0.882 | 0.828–0.936 | *** | – | – | – |
| Take longer breaks (DUR1) | 0.850 | 0.804–0.896 | *** | – | – | – |
| Shorten the working day (DUR2) | 0.927 | 0.884–0.969 | *** | – | – | – |
| Place | 0.806 | 0.740–0.872 | *** | – | – | – |
| Work from home (PLA1) | 0.885 | 0.819–0.951 | *** | – | – | – |
| Work from a computer or other digital aid (PLA2) | 0.841 | 0.765–0.918 | *** | – | – | – |
| INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: SCHEDULE FLEXIBILITY | ||||||
| My employer (manager) has granted me a higher degree of flexibility concerning the execution of my work task (SF1) | 0.844 | 0.805–0.883 | *** | – | – | – |
| My employer is open to discussing my working conditions based on my individual needs and desires (SF2) | 0.891 | 0.859–0.923 | *** | – | – | – |
| My manager takes into account my personal requests for working hours (schedules) (SF3) | 0.694 | 0.630–0.758 | *** | – | – | – |
| Based on my wishes, my supervisor (manager) takes into account my private situation when determining my working hours (SF4) | 0.683 | 0.617–0.748 | *** | – | – | – |
| I have permission from my supervisor (manager) to take time off for non-work-related matters (SF5) | 0.630 | 0.544–0.716 | *** | – | – | – |
| INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: TASK AND WORK RESPONSIBILITIES | ||||||
| I have agreed with my employer (manager) to be assigned tasks that better match my competence and experiences (TWR1) | 0.940 | 0.925–0.956 | *** | – | – | – |
| I have agreed with my employer (manager) to be assigned tasks that better develop my knowledge (TWR2) | 0.954 | 0.938–0.969 | *** | – | – | – |
| I have discussed the possibility of being assigned tasks that better match my skills and abilities with my employer (manager) (TWR3) | 0.909 | 0.887–0.930 | *** | – | – | – |
| My employer has offered me the opportunity to work with tasks that are outside my usual area of responsibility (TWR4) | 0.738 | 0.690–0.786 | *** | |||
| INDIVIDUAL ARRANGEMENT: FINANCIAL INCENTIVES | ||||||
| Based on my special skills, my employer is open to discussing my salary and other benefits (FI1) | 0.884 | 0.824–0.944 | *** | |||
| My employer has increased my salary because of my good performance (FI2) | 0.727 | 0.647–0.807 | *** | |||
| INTENTION TO LEAVE | ||||||
| I feel like quitting my current job (ITL1) | – | – | – | 0.808 | 0.767–0.849 | *** |
| I am searching/will start searching for a new job (ITL2) | – | – | – | 0.930 | 0.888–0.972 | *** |
| If I find a new job, I would end my current employment (ITL3) | – | – | – | 0.902 | 0.870–0.935 | *** |
| RESIDUAL COVARIANCES | ||||||
| SF3 Û SF4 | 0.663 | 0.612–0.718 | *** | – | – | – |
| TWR4 Û SF1 | 0.570 | 0.445–0.696 | *** | – | – | – |
| PER3 Û DUR1 | 0.489 | 0.336–0.641 | *** | – | – | – |
| N | 769 | 769 | ||||
| Chi2 (df) | 483.356 (123) | – | ||||
| TLI | 0.980 | – | ||||
| RMSEA | 0.062 | – | ||||
| WRMR | 1.246 | – | ||||
[i] Notes: * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.
(a) Standardized coefficients.
(b) Just identified model, no fit indices available.
Figure 1
Full structural model (N = 769).
Notes:
(a) White circles represent latent variables; white rectangles represent observed variables. Bold lines represent significant associations; grey lines indicate non-significant associations. Abbreviation: IA = individual arrangement.
(b) Fully standardized coefficients reported, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
(c) Model adjusted for: Gender, age, place of birth, self-rated health, and tenure (estimates excluded for clarity reasons but are available upon request).
(d) Model fit indices: Chi2 (df) = 891.007(302); TLI = 0.971; RMSEA = 0.050; SRMR: 0.088.