Techno-economic comparison of fossil, renewable-carbon and recycling pathways for polypropylene
By: Robert Maertens
References
- Agarwal, A. 2018. A design approach for on-purpose propylene production with safety and sustainability considerations. Texas A&M University. Available at:
https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/5533de62-0fec-412e-970d-4546eb40895d/content [Last accessed 3 September 2026]. - Agora Energiewende and Wuppertal Institut. 2019. Klimaneutrale Industrie: Schlüsseltechnologien und Politikoptionen für Stahl, Chemie und Zement. Berlin: Agora Energiewende.
- Alsabri, A, Tahir, F and Al-Ghamdi, SG. 2021. ‘Life-Cycle Assessment of Polypropylene Production in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Region’. Polymers, 13(21):
3793 . DOI: 10.3390/polym13213793 - Amadei, A, Venturelli, S and Manfredi, S. 2025. Plastics materials flows in the EU-27 and their environmental impacts: unveiling the European plastic value chain. Publications Office of the European Union. Available at:
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/6579757 [Last accessed 3 September 2026]. - Antonopoulos, I, Faraca, G and Tonini, D. 2021. ‘Recycling of post-consumer plastic packaging waste in the EU: Recovery rates, material flows, and barriers’. Waste Management, 126: 694–705. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.04.002
- Ausfelder, F, Bazzanella, A, Boumrifak, C, Helle, C, Hiessl, S, Nisters, A, Schürrle, K, Tran, DD and Wendler, K. 2026. Transformation der chemischen Verfahrenstechnik – Effiziente Herstellungswege mit veränderter Rohstoffbasis. Frankfurt am Main: DECHEMA e.V. Available at:
https://zenodo.org/records/20848947 [Last accessed 16 July 2026]. - BASF. 2024. BASF, SABIC, and Linde celebrate the start-up of the world’s first large-scale electrically heated steam cracking furnace. Available at:
https://www.basf.com/global/en/media/news-releases/2024/04/p-24-177 [Last accessed 16 July 2026]. - BASF. 2026. ‘Price Trends for Key Commodities’. BASF. Available at:
https://report.basf.com/2025/en/combined-managements-report/basf-groups-business-year/economic-environment/key-commodities.html [Last accessed 16 July 2026]. - Bazzanella, A and Ausfelder, F. 2017. Low carbon energy and feedstock for the European chemical industry. Frankfurt am Main: DECHEMA e.V.
- Biessey, P, Vogel, J, Seitz, M and Quicker, P. 2023. ‘Plastic Waste Utilization via Chemical Recycling: Approaches, Limitations, and the Challenges Ahead’. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 95(8): 1199–1214. DOI: 10.1002/cite.202300042
- Cimpan, C, Maul, A, Wenzel, H and Pretz, T. 2016. ‘Techno-economic assessment of central sorting at material recovery facilities – the case of lightweight packaging waste’. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112: 4387–4397. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.011
- Conversio. 2024. Kurzfassung der Conversio Studie “Stoffstrombild Kunststoffe in Deutschland 2023 – Zahlen und Fakten zum Lebensweg von Kunststoffen”. Available at:
https://www.vci.de/ergaenzende-downloads/kurzfassung-stoffstrombild-2023.pdf [Last accessed 5 June 2025]. - Dechema, Plastics Europe and VCI. 2021. Forschungspolitische Empfehlungen zum chemischen Kunststoffrecycling – neue Verfahren und Konzepte. Frankfurt am Main.
- Dürrwächter, J, Blömer, R, Verpoort, PC, Effing, P, Eckstein, J and Ueckerdt, F. 2023. CaCoCa: The Carbon Contracts Calculator. Available at:
https://github.com/JakobBD/cacoca . - European Commission. 2024. Guidance on Interpretation of Annex I of the EU ETS Directive (excluding aviation and maritime activities). Brussels: European Commission. Available at:
https://climate.ec.europa.eu/document/download/edc93136-82a0-482c-bf47-39ecaf13b318_en [Last accessed 13 July 2026]. - European Environment Agency. 2024. The role of plastics in Europe’s circular economy. LU: Publications Office. Available at:
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2800/30 [Last accessed 3 September 2026]. - European Parliament and Council. 2023. Directive (EU) 2023/2413 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 October 2023 amending Directive (EU) 2018/2001, Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 and Directive 98/70/EC as regards the promotion of energy from renewable sources, and repealing Council Directive (EU) 2015/652. Available at:
https://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2023/2413/oj [Last accessed 16 September 2026]. - European Parliament and Council. 2025. ‘Regulation (EU) 2025/40 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 December 2024 on packaging and packaging waste, amending Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and Directive (EU) 2019/904, and repealing Directive 94/62/EC’. Official Journal of the European Union. Available at:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2025/40/oj/eng [Last accessed 16 July 2026]. - FNB Gas e. V. 2024. Gemeinsamer Antrag für das Wasserstoff-Kernnetz. Available at:
https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Fachthemen/ElektrizitaetundGas/Wasserstoff/_DL/Antrag_FNB.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3 [Last accessed 16 September 2026]. - FutureCamp and Dechema. 2019. Roadmap Chemie 2050. München: FutureCamp Climate GmbH.
- Garcia-Gutierrez, P, Amadei, AM, Klenert, D, Nessi, S, Tonini, D, Tosches, D, Ardente, F and Saveyn, H. 2023. Environmental and economic assessment of plastic waste recycling: a comparison of mechanical, physical, chemical recycling and energy recovery of plastic waste. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
JRC132067 . Available at:https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/0472 [Last accessed 25 August 2025]. - Geyer, R, Jambeck, JR and Law, KL. 2017. ‘Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made’. Science Advances, 3(7):
e1700782 . DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1700782 - GreenDelta GmbH. 2025. OpenLCA. Available at:
https://www.openlca.org/ . - Guidehouse, Fraunhofer ISI, and Wuppertal Institut. 2024. Leitmärkte für klimafreundliche Grundstoffe – Wissenschaftliches Begleitdokument im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Berlin: Guidehouse Germany GmbH.
- Haro, P, Ollero, P and Trippe, F. 2013. ‘Technoeconomic assessment of potential processes for bio-ethylene production’. Fuel Processing Technology, 114: 35–48. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2013.03.024
- Jin, H, Gonzalez-Gutierrez, J, Oblak, P, Zupančič, B and Emri, I. 2012. ‘The effect of extensive mechanical recycling on the properties of low density polyethylene’. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 97(11): 2262–2272. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.07.039
- Justen, S, Keimeyer, F, Hoesch, S and Hennenberg, K. 2026. ‘The cascading use of biomass – (how) does RED III ensure the efficient use of wood?’ eceee Summer Study proceedings, 1(1). Available at:
https://eceeeproceedings.org/articles/10.66506/essp.8-107-26 [Last accessed 16 September 2026]. - Kaufmann, CB. 2011.
‘Leo H. Baekeland’ . In: Strom, ET and Rasmussen, SC (Eds.), 100+ Years of Plastics. Leo Baekeland and Beyond. ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 1080. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. pp. 1–10. DOI: 10.1021/bk-2011-1080.ch001 [Last accessed 10 February 2026]. - Ketting, HD. 2024. Techno-Economic Analysis of Waste Plastic Gasification. Louisiana Tech University. Available at:
https://digitalcommons.latech.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1134&context=theses [Last accessed 19 February 2026]. - Kim, H, Lee, B, Lim, D, Choe, C and Lim, H. 2021. ‘What is the best green propylene production pathway?: technical, economic, and environmental assessment’. Green Chemistry, 23(19): 7635–7645. DOI: 10.1039/d1gc01791h
- Kricheldorf, HR, Nuyken, O and Swift, G. (Eds.) 2020. Handbook of Polymer Synthesis. 2nd edn. S.l.: CRC Press.
- Kusenberg, M, Roosen, M, Zayoud, A, Djokic, MR, Dao Thi, H, De Meester, S, Ragaert, K, Kresovic, U and Van Geem, KM. 2022. ‘Assessing the feasibility of chemical recycling via steam cracking of untreated plastic waste pyrolysis oils: Feedstock impurities, product yields and coke formation’. Waste Management, 141: 104–114. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.01.033
- Larrain, M, Van Passel, S, Thomassen, G, Van Gorp, B, Nhu, TT, Huysveld, S, Van Geem, KM, De Meester, S and Billen, P. 2021. ‘Techno-economic assessment of mechanical recycling of challenging post-consumer plastic packaging waste’. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 170:
105607 . DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105607 - Lee, U, Cai, H, Ou, L, Benavides, PT, Wang, Y and Wang, M. 2023. ‘Life cycle analysis of gasification and Fischer-Tropsch conversion of municipal solid waste for transportation fuel production’. Journal of Cleaner Production, 382:
135114 . DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135114 - Letoffet, A, Campion, N, Böhme, M, Jensen, CD, Ahrenfeldt, J and Clausen, LR. 2024. ‘Techno-economic assessment of upgraded pyrolysis bio-oils for future marine fuels’. Energy Conversion and Management, 306:
118225 . DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118225 - Luderer, G, Kost, C and Sörgel, D. 2021. Deutschland auf dem Weg zur Klimaneutralität 2045 – Szenarien und Pfade im Modellvergleich. 359 pages. DOI: 10.48485/PIK.2021.006
- Maertens, R and Weiss, B. 2025. CaCoCa project specific fork. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18694649
- Mager, M, Zeilerbauer, L, Felgel-Farnholz, A, Czaker, S, Fischer, J, Postema, SHJ, Kasper, JB and van Eijk, MCP. 2026. ‘Advancing mechanical recycling of polypropylene: lessons from sorting, washing, and life cycle assessment’. Waste Management, 212:
115356 . DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2026.115356 - Markowitsch, C, Lehner, M and Maly, M. 2023. ‘Comparison and techno-economic evaluation of process routes for lower olefin production via Fischer–Tropsch and methanol synthesis’. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 129:
103985 . DOI: 10.1016/j.ijggc.2023.103985 - Möck, A, Bulach, W and Betz, J. 2022. Climate impact of pyrolysis of waste plastic packaging in comparison with reuse and mechanical recycling. Darmstadt: Öko-Institut. Available at:
https://zerowasteeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/zwe_2022_report_climat_impact__pyrolysis_plastic_packaging.pdf [Last accessed 14 August 2025]. - Nordahl, SL, Baral, NR, Helms, BA and Scown, CD. 2023. ‘Complementary roles for mechanical and solvent-based recycling in low-carbon, circular polypropylene’. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(46):
e2306902120 . DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2306902120 - Olafasakin, O, Ma, J, Zavala, V, Brown, RC, Huber, GW and Mba-Wright, M. 2023. ‘Comparative Techno-economic Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment of Producing High-Value Chemicals and Fuels from Waste Plastic via Conventional Pyrolysis and Thermal Oxo-degradation’. Energy & Fuels, 37(20): 15832–15842. DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c02321
- Rueda-Durán, CA, Velasquez-Barrios, AR, Marín-Valencia, PA, Álvarez-Giraldo, JC, Mogollón-Rincón, E, Cardona-Cabarcas, R, Giraldo, OH and Cardona-Alzate, CA. 2018. ‘Techno-economic evaluation of a polymerization process: impact of degradation potential on production costs of polypropylene using alternative additives’. In: Proceedings of NAXOS 2018–6th International Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management. Available at:
http://uest.ntua.gr/naxos2018/proceedings/pdf/151_NAXOS2018_Rueda_etal.pdf [Last accessed 8 August 2025]. - Schyns, ZOG and Shaver, MP. 2021. ‘Mechanical Recycling of Packaging Plastics: A Review’. Macromolecular Rapid Communications, 42(3):
2000415 . Available at:https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/marc.202000415 [Last accessed 18 July 2025]. - Shirzad, P and Kantor, I. 2025. ‘Toward sustainable propylene: A comparison of current and future production pathways’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition, 7:
100099 . DOI: 10.1016/j.rset.2024.100099 - Sollai, S, Porcu, A, Tola, V, Ferrara, F and Pettinau, A. 2023. ‘Renewable methanol production from green hydrogen and captured CO2: A techno-economic assessment’. Journal of CO2 Utilization, 68:
102345 . DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2022.102345 - S&P Global Commodity Insights. 2025. ‘Bio-Chemicals 2025’. S&P Global Energy. Available at:
https://www.spglobal.com/energy/en/news-research/special-reports/chemicals/bio-chemicals-2025 [Last accessed 3 September 2026]. - Sphera. 2022. Life Cycle Assessment of Chemical Recycling for Food Grade Film. Available at:
https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Life-Cycle-Assessment-of-Chemical-Recycling-for-Food-Grade-Film.pdf [Last accessed 4 September 2025]. - Stallkamp, C. 2023. Designing a Circular Economy for Plastics: The Role of Chemical Recycling in Germany. Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT). Available at:
https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000160932 [Last accessed 17 June 2025]. - Stallkamp, C, Hennig, M, Volk, R, Stapf, D and Schultmann, F. 2024. ‘Pyrolysis of mixed engineering plastics: Economic challenges for automotive plastic waste’. Waste Management, 176: 105–116. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.01.035
- Together for Sustainability. 2024. The Product Carbon Footprint Guideline for the Chemical Industry. Together for Sustainability. Available at:
https://www.tfs-initiative.com/app/uploads/2024/03/TfS_PCF_guidelines_2024_EN_pages-low.pdf [Last accessed 6 August 2025]. - Volk, R, Stallkamp, C, Steins, JJ, Yogish, SP, Müller, RC, Stapf, D and Schultmann, F. 2021. ‘Techno-economic assessment and comparison of different plastic recycling pathways: A German case study’. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 25(5): 1318–1337. DOI: 10.1111/jiec.13145
- Wehnemann, K, Koßmann, M, Purr, K, Pagel, M and Steinbrenner, J. 2026. Treibhausgas-Projektionen 2026 – Ergebnisse kompakt. Umweltbundesamt . p.
43 . Available at:https://openumwelt.de/handle/123456789/11471 [Last accessed 14 April 2026]. - Zhao, Z, Liu, Y, Wang, F, Li, X, Deng, S, Xu, J, Wei, W and Wang, F. 2017. ‘Life cycle assessment of primary energy demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of four propylene production pathways in China’. Journal of Cleaner Production, 163: 285–292. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.099
DOI: https://doi.org/10.66506/ed.14 | Journal eISSN: 3119-4044
Language: English
Page range: 15 - 15
Submitted on: Apr 14, 2026
Accepted on: Sep 30, 2026
Published on: Oct 15, 2026
Published by: European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (eceee)
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Keywords:
© 2026 Robert Maertens, published by European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (eceee)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.