Table 1
Descriptive Statistics in Study 1.
| VARIABLES | FINAL SAMPLE (N = 201) | TV SERIES (n = 73) | DOCUMENTARY (n = 128) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |
| Gender (female) | 157 (78%) | 52 (71%) | 105 (82%) | |||
| Education | ||||||
| Low track | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | |||
| Middle track | 2 (1%) | 0 (0%) | 2 (2%) | |||
| High track | 170 (85%) | 64 (88%) | 106 (83%) | |||
| University degree | 24 (12%) | 9 (12%) | 15 (12%) | |||
| Other | 5 (2%) | 0 (0%) | 5 (4%) | |||
| Age (years) | 22.49 | 5.25 | 21.93 | 3.44 | 22.80 | 6.04 |
| ART | 13.27 | 7.61 | 13.37 | 7.45 | 13.22 | 7.73 |
| Identification | 2.79 | 0.93 | 3.07 | 0.87 | 2.63 | 0.94 |
| Transportation | 3.10 | 0.86 | 3.12 | 0.82 | 3.09 | 0.88 |
| Theory of Mind (t1) | 25.76 | 2.89 | 25.73 | 2.79 | 25.78 | 2.96 |
| Theory of Mind (t2) | 26.14 | 3.17 | 26.45 | 2.90 | 25.96 | 3.31 |
| Empathy (t1) | 3.75 | 0.42 | 3.72 | 0.43 | 3.77 | 0.42 |
| Empathy (t2) | 3.71 | 0.45 | 3.65 | 0.46 | 3.75 | 0.44 |
| Other TV series/films (number) | 1.16 | 1.10 | 1.33 | 1.14 | 1.06 | 1.07 |
| Other TV series/films (hours) | 3.73 | 4.48 | 4.55 | 5.04 | 3.26 | 4.07 |
| Time pre- to posttest (hours) | 171.70 | 9.02 | 171.40 | 8.90 | 171.80 | 9.12 |
[i] Note. The educational system in Germany comprises three high-school tracks in secondary school: Haupt-/Mittelschule (low track), Realschule (middle track), Gymnasium (high track), with only the latter track qualifying for university entrance. ART = Author Recognition Test (Grolig et al., 2020; checklist B). Other TV series/films refer to other TV series and films watched during the period of the study.
Table 2
Effects of Experimental Condition on Theory of Mind and Empathy in Study 1.
| PREDICTORS | ToM MODEL 1 | ToM MODEL 2 | ToM MODEL 3 | EMP MODEL 1 | EMP MODEL 2 | EMP MODEL 3 | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | |
| (Intercept) | 25.98 (25.60–26.36) | 133.39 (199) | <.001 | 26.01 (25.61–26.41) | 128.16 (197) | <.001 | 25.98 (25.60–26.37) | 133.10 (197) | <.001 | 3.72 (3.66–3.78) | 120.87 (199) | <.001 | 3.69 (3.63–3.75) | 127.80 (197) | <.001 | 3.72 (3.66–3.78) | 127.49 (197) | <.001 |
| Condition | 0.11 (–0.28–0.49) | 0.56 (199) | .576 | 0.14 (–0.26–0.54) | 0.70 (197) | .486 | 0.11 (–0.27–0.50) | 0.57 (197) | .567 | –0.04 (–0.10–0.02) | –1.29 (199) | .199 | –0.09 (–0.15––0.03) | –3.16 (197) | .002 | –0.04 (–0.10–0.02) | –1.45 (197) | .148 |
| Time | 0.23 (0.01–0.44) | 2.10 (199) | .037 | 0.20 (–0.03–0.42) | 1.74 (197) | .083 | 0.22 (0.01–0.44) | 2.07 (197) | .039 | –0.02 (–0.04––0.01) | –2.80 (199) | .006 | –0.03 (–0.04––0.01) | –2.80 (197) | .006 | –0.02 (–0.04––0.01) | –2.79 (197) | .006 |
| Condition × Time | 0.14 (–0.08–0.35) | 1.27 (199) | .207 | 0.11 (–0.11–0.33) | 0.97 (197) | .331 | 0.13 (–0.08–0.35) | 1.25 (197) | .214 | –0.01 (–0.03–0.01) | –1.34 (199) | .182 | –0.01 (–0.03–0.01) | –1.33 (197) | .184 | –0.01 (–0.03–0.01) | –1.35 (197) | .178 |
| Identification | –0.12 (–0.56–0.31) | –0.56 (197) | .577 | 0.21 (0.15–0.28) | 6.82 (197) | <.001 | ||||||||||||
| Condition × Identification | –0.10 (–0.53–0.34) | –0.44 (197) | .659 | 0.08 (0.02–0.15) | 2.65 (197) | .009 | ||||||||||||
| Time × Identification | 0.09 (–0.15–0.33) | 0.76 (197) | .446 | 0.00 (–0.02–0.02) | 0.08 (197) | .938 | ||||||||||||
| Condition × Time × Identification | 0.12 (–0.12–0.36) | 0.96 (197) | .340 | 0.00 (–0.01–0.02) | 0.47 (197) | .640 | ||||||||||||
| Transportation | –0.22 (–0.68–0.24) | –0.93 (197) | .355 | 0.17 (0.10–0.24) | 4.91 (197) | <.001 | ||||||||||||
| Condition × Transportation | 0.05 (–0.41–0.52) | 0.23 (197) | .816 | 0.03 (–0.03–0.10) | 0.99 (197) | .325 | ||||||||||||
| Time × Transportation | 0.08 (–0.17–0.34) | 0.65 (197) | .515 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.03) | 0.90 (197) | .368 | ||||||||||||
| Condition × Time × Transportation | 0.10 (–0.15–0.36) | 0.80 (197) | .427 | –0.00 (–0.02–0.02) | –0.34 (197) | .737 | ||||||||||||
| Random Effects | ||||||||||||||||||
| Residual Variance | 4.33 | 4.35 | 4.36 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | ||||||||||||
| Intercept Variance | 4.89 id | 4.94 id | 4.90 id | 0.16 id | 0.13 id | 0.14 id | ||||||||||||
| ICC | .53 | .53 | .53 | .85 | .82 | .84 | ||||||||||||
| N | 201 id | 201 id | 201 id | 201 id | 201 id | 201 id | ||||||||||||
| Observations | 402 | 402 | 402 | 402 | 402 | 402 | ||||||||||||
| Marginal R2/Conditional R2 | .007/.534 | .010/.536 | .012/.535 | .011/.854 | .183/.854 | .111/.855 | ||||||||||||
[i] Note. CI = 95% confidence interval. Categorical variables were effect-coded (Time: pretest = –1, posttest = 1; Condition: documentary = –1, TV series = 1). Continuous predictors were mean-centered.
Figure 1
Effect of Experimental Condition on Theory of Mind in Study 1.
Note: Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals.
Figure 2
Effect of Experimental Condition on Empathy in Study 1.
Note: Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics in Study 2.
| VARIABLES | FINAL SAMPLE (N = 165) | TV SERIES (n = 84) | DOCUMENTARY (n = 81) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |
| Gender (female) | 142 (86%) | 73 (87%) | 69 (85%) | |||
| Education | ||||||
| High track | 158 (96%) | 79 (94%) | 79 (98%) | |||
| Other Tracks | 7 (4%) | 5 (6%) | 2 (2%) | |||
| Age (years) | 21.99 | 6.21 | 22.00 | 6.29 | 21.98 | 6.17 |
| ART | 12.82 | 6.93 | 12.96 | 7.26 | 12.68 | 6.62 |
| Transportation | 4.95 | 1.07 | 5.50 | 0.76 | 4.38 | 1.04 |
| Theory of Mind (t1) | 24.47 | 3.02 | 24.35 | 2.98 | 24.60 | 3.08 |
| Theory of Mind (t2) | 24.81 | 3.30 | 24.37 | 3.36 | 25.26 | 3.19 |
| Theory of Mind (t3) | 25.14 | 3.77 | 24.88 | 4.03 | 25.41 | 3.50 |
| Empathy (t1) | 3.72 | 0.42 | 3.69 | 0.42 | 3.75 | 0.42 |
| Empathy (t2) | 3.78 | 0.40 | 3.76 | 0.41 | 3.79 | 0.40 |
| Empathy (t3) | 3.76 | 0.42 | 3.75 | 0.44 | 3.77 | 0.41 |
| Media-based empathy (t1) | 3.92 | 0.45 | 3.87 | 0.46 | 3.97 | 0.45 |
| Media-based empathy (t2) | 3.91 | 0.44 | 3.92 | 0.47 | 3.90 | 0.40 |
| Media-based empathy (t3) | 3.86 | 0.46 | 3.83 | 0.48 | 3.88 | 0.45 |
| Other TV genres (number) | 2.60 | 1.25 | 2.62 | 1.18 | 2.58 | 1.32 |
| Other TV episodes (number) | 2.87 | 1.86 | 2.95 | 1.94 | 2.78 | 1.78 |
| Time pre- to posttest (hours) | 98.75 | 56.46 | 87.94 | 54.38 | 110.00 | 56.71 |
| Time posttest to follow-up (hours) | 169.20 | 26.24 | 165.30 | 27.95 | 173.20 | 23.85 |
[i] Note. The educational system in Germany comprises three high-school tracks in secondary school: Haupt-/Mittelschule (low track), Realschule (middle track), Gymnasium (high track), with only the latter track qualifying for university entrance. ART = Author Recognition Test (Grolig et al., 2020; checklist B). Other TV genres/episodes refer to other TV genres and episodes watched during the period from pre- to posttest.
Table 4
Effects of Experimental Condition on Theory of Mind, Empathy, and Media-Based Empathy in Study 2, Controlling for Time between Pretest and Posttest.
| PREDICTORS | ToM MODEL 1 | ToM MODEL 2 | EMP MODEL 1 | EMP MODEL 2 | MEDIA EMP MODEL 1 | MEDIA EMP MODEL 2 | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | |
| (Intercept) | 24.80 (24.36–25.25) | 111.09 (161) | <.001 | 24.76 (24.25–25.28) | 95.22 (157) | <.001 | 3.75 (3.69–3.82) | 120.04 (161) | <.001 | 3.68 (3.61–3.75) | 104.06 (157) | <.001 | 3.90 (3.83–3.96) | 112.66 (161) | <.001 | 3.80 (3.72–3.88) | 96.50 (157) | <.001 |
| Condition | –0.26 (–0.70–0.18) | –1.15 (161) | .251 | –0.72 (–1.24––0.21) | –2.78 (157) | .006 | –0.02 (–0.08–0.05) | –0.52 (161) | .605 | –0.10 (–0.17––0.03) | –2.84 (157) | .005 | –0.02 (–0.08–0.05) | –0.44 (161) | .664 | –0.09 (–0.17––0.01) | –2.30 (157) | .022 |
| Time2 | 0.00 (–0.29–0.29) | 0.02 (324) | .984 | –0.02 (–0.37–0.34) | –0.09 (316) | .932 | 0.02 (0.00–0.04) | 2.06 (324) | .040 | 0.02 (–0.01–0.04) | 1.32 (316) | .189 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.03) | 1.13 (324) | .260 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.04) | 0.90 (316) | .371 |
| Time3 | 0.33 (0.04–0.62) | 2.25 (324) | .025 | 0.29 (–0.06–0.65) | 1.61 (316) | .108 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.03) | 0.69 (324) | .490 | 0.00 (–0.02–0.03) | 0.36 (316) | .717 | –0.04 (–0.06––0.02) | –3.67 (324) | <.001 | –0.05 (–0.08––0.03) | –4.16 (316) | <.001 |
| Condition × Time 2 | –0.16 (–0.46–0.14) | –1.05 (324) | .293 | –0.10 (–0.45–0.26) | –0.55 (316) | .586 | –0.00 (–0.02–0.02) | –0.10 (324) | .919 | –0.00 (–0.03–0.02) | –0.13 (316) | .895 | 0.03 (0.01–0.05) | 2.57 (324) | .011 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.04) | 1.18 (316) | .240 |
| Condition × Time 3 | 0.04 (–0.26–0.34) | 0.28 (324) | .782 | 0.04 (–0.32–0.39) | 0.21 (316) | .833 | 0.00 (–0.02–0.03) | 0.36 (324) | .719 | –0.00 (–0.03–0.02) | –0.30 (316) | .764 | –0.00 (–0.03–0.02) | –0.42 (324) | .676 | –0.01 (–0.03–0.02) | –0.64 (316) | .520 |
| Transportation | 0.88 (0.37–1.39) | 3.43 (157) | .001 | 0.15 (0.08–0.22) | 4.34 (157) | <.001 | 0.13 (0.06–0.21) | 3.42 (157) | .001 | |||||||||
| Condition × Transportation | 0.03 (–0.48–0.53) | 0.10 (157) | .919 | 0.12 (0.05–0.19) | 3.54 (157) | .001 | 0.16 (0.09–0.24) | 4.21 (157) | <.001 | |||||||||
| Time 2 × Transportation | –0.09 (–0.43–0.25) | –0.54 (316) | .591 | 0.00 (–0.02–0.03) | 0.17 (316) | .864 | 0.02 (–0.00–0.05) | 1.97 (316) | .050 | |||||||||
| Time 3 × Transportation | 0.02 (–0.32–0.36) | 0.11 (316) | .909 | 0.02 (–0.01–0.04) | 1.16 (316) | .245 | 0.01 (–0.02–0.03) | 0.46 (316) | .646 | |||||||||
| Condition × Time 2 × Transportation | 0.06 (–0.29–0.41) | 0.32 (316) | .752 | 0.01 (–0.01–0.04) | 0.87 (316) | .388 | –0.00 (–0.03–0.02) | –0.08 (316) | .938 | |||||||||
| Condition × Time 3 × Transportation | 0.04 (–0.31–0.39) | 0.20 (316) | .842 | 0.00 (–0.02–0.03) | 0.35 (316) | .726 | 0.03 (0.00–0.05) | 2.10 (316) | .036 | |||||||||
| Random Effects | ||||||||||||||||||
| Residual Variance | 5.40 | 5.46 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | ||||||||||||
| Intercept Variance | 6.08 id | 5.47 id | 0.14 id | 0.12 id | 0.18 id | 0.16 id | ||||||||||||
| ICC | .53 | .50 | .83 | .80 | .87 | .86 | ||||||||||||
| N | 165 id | 165 id | 165 id | 165 id | 165 id | 165 id | ||||||||||||
| Observations | 495 | 495 | 495 | 495 | 495 | 495 | ||||||||||||
| Marginal R2/Conditional R2 | .017/.537 | .084/.542 | .011/.828 | .137/.830 | .012/.874 | .133/.878 | ||||||||||||
[i] Note. CI = 95% confidence interval. Time span between pre- and posttest and all two-way and three-way interactions with the predictors (condition, time, and transportation) were included in the model but are not displayed to enhance readability of the table. Categorical variables were effect-coded (Time: pretest = –1, posttest = 1, follow-up = 1; Condition: documentary = –1, fictional TV series = 1). Continuous predictors (transportation, time between pre- and posttest) were mean-centered. A square-root transformation was applied to time between pre- and posttest because the data were positively skewed.
Figure 3
Effect of Experimental Condition on Theory of Mind in Study 2.
Note: Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Time span between pre- and posttest and all two-way and three-way interactions with the predictors are included as covariates.
Figure 4
Effect of Experimental Condition on Empathy in Study 2.
Note: Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Time span between pre- and posttest and all two-way and three-way interactions with the predictors are included as covariates.
Figure 5
Effect of Experimental Condition on Media-Based Empathy in Study 2.
Note: Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Time span between pre- and posttest and all two-way and three-way interactions with the predictors are included as covariates.
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics in Study 3.
| VARIABLES | FINAL SAMPLE (N = 46) | TV SERIES (n = 23) | DOCUMENTARY (n = 23) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |
| Gender (female) | 36 (78%) | 18 (78%) | 18 (78%) | |||
| Education | ||||||
| High track | 40 (87%) | 21 (91%) | 19 (83%) | |||
| Other Tracks | 6 (13%) | 3 (9%) | 5 (17%) | |||
| Age (years) | 25.41 | 8.80 | 23.78 | 8.10 | 27.04 | 9.33 |
| Theory of Mind RMET (t1) | 26.52 | 3.78 | 26.83 | 3.10 | 26.22 | 4.41 |
| Theory of Mind RMET (t2) | 27.00 | 3.20 | 26.57 | 3.26 | 27.43 | 3.16 |
| Theory of Mind MASC (t2) | 36.33 | 3.43 | 35.83 | 3.56 | 36.83 | 3.28 |
| Empathy (t1) | 3.84 | 0.46 | 3.71 | 0.41 | 3.96 | 0.48 |
| Empathy (t2) | 3.89 | 0.46 | 3.83 | 0.46 | 3.95 | 0.45 |
| Enjoyment of Experimental Stimulus | 1.91 | 0.96 | 1.57 | 0.84 | 2.26 | 0.96 |
[i] Note. The educational system in Germany comprises three high-school tracks in secondary school: Haupt-/Mittelschule (low track), Realschule (middle track), Gymnasium (high track), with only the latter track qualifying for university entrance.
Table 6
Effects of Experimental Condition on Theory of Mind and Empathy in Study 3.
| PREDICTORS | ToM MODEL 1 (RMET) | ToM MODEL 2 (MASC) | EMP MODEL 1 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | ESTIMATES (CI) | t (df) | p | |
| (Intercept) | 26.76 (25.85–27.67) | 59.05 (44) | <.001 | 36.33 (35.31–37.34) | 71.90 (44) | <.001 | 3.86 (3.73–3.99) | 59.58 (44) | <.001 |
| Condition | –0.07 (–0.98–0.85) | –0.14 (44) | .886 | –0.50 (–1.52–0.52) | –0.99 (44) | .328 | –0.09 (–0.22–0.04) | –1.45 (44) | .155 |
| Time | 0.24 (–0.27–0.75) | 0.94 (44) | .352 | 0.03 (–0.01–0.06) | 1.62 (44) | .112 | |||
| Condition × Time | –0.37 (–0.88–0.14) | –1.45 (44) | .153 | 0.03 (–0.00–0.06) | 1.96 (44) | .056 | |||
| Random Effects | |||||||||
| Residual Variance | 5.94 | 0.02 | |||||||
| Intercept Variance | 6.48 id | 0.18 id | |||||||
| ICC | .52 | .89 | |||||||
| N | 46 id | 46 id | |||||||
| Observations | 92 | 46 | 92 | ||||||
| Marginal R2/Conditional R2 | .016/.529 | .022/–.000 | .049/.892 | ||||||
[i] Note. RMET = Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test; MASC = Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition; CI = 95% confidence interval. Categorical variables were effect-coded (Time: pretest = –1, posttest = 1; Condition: documentary = –1, fictional TV series = 1).