Working Memory Capacity, TL Grammar Attainment and Length of Study as Predictors of Explicit and Implicit (Automatized) Knowledge of English Passive Voice

Biedroń, Adriana; Pasikowski, Sławomir; Pawlak, Mirosław

doi:10.58734/plc-2024-0001

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between phonological short-term memory (PSTM), working memory capacity (WMC), and receptive and productive dimensions of explicit and implicit (automatized) knowledge of English passive voice, also taking into account the effect of grammar attainment and self-reported length of study. Participants were 152 Polish university students majoring in English. Two measures of PSTM and WMC were applied. Receptive and productive explicit knowledge were measured by means of an untimed grammaticality judgment test and a test requiring the provision of correct verb forms, respectively. Receptive implicit (automatized) knowledge was assessed with a timed grammaticality judgment test while its productive dimension was assessed through a focused communication task. Canonical correlation for the entire model was rather high, which means that the original variables were strongly related to each other. However, finer-grained analyses showed that it was primarily overall grammar attainment, and, to a lesser extent, WMC that determined the levels of explicit and implicit (automatized) grammar knowledge.

References

Antoniou, M., Ettlinger, M., & Wong, P. C. M. (2016). Complexity, training paradigm design, and the contribution of memory subsystems to grammar learning. PLoS One 11(7), e0158812. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158812
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Baddeley, A.D., Gathercole, S, & Papagno, C, (1998). The phonological loop as a language acquisition device. Psychological Review, 105, 158–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.105.1.158
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Biedroń, A. & Szczepaniak, A. (2012). Working-memory and short-term memory abilities in accomplished multilinguals. Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2012.01332.x
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bielak, J., & Pawlak, M. (2013). Applying cognitive grammar in the foreign language classroom: teaching english tense and aspect. Springer.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Brzezinski, J., Gaul, M., Hornowska, E., Machowski, A., & Zakrzewska, M. (1996). Skala inteligencji D. Wechslera dla dorosłych. Wersja zrewidowana. WAIS-R (Pl). Podręcznik [Wechsler adult intelligence scale. A revised version. WAIS-R (Pl). Manual]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DeKeyser, R. (2009). Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 119–138). Wiley-Blackwell.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DeKeyser, R. (2015). Skill acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An introduction (pp. 94–112). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DeKeyser, R. (2017). Knowledge and skill in SLA. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 15–32). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DeKeyser, R. M., & Juffs, A. (2005). Cognitive considerations in L2 learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 437–454). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R. (2004). The definition and measurement of explicit knowledge. Language Learning, 54(2), 227–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00255.x
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 141–172. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263105050096
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R. (2006). Modeling learning difficulty and second language proficiency: The differential contributions of implicit and explicit knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 27(3), 431–463. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml022
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3–25). Multilingual Matters.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ellis, R., Loewen, S., Elder, C., Erlam, R., Philp, J., & Reinders, H. (Eds.). (2009). Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching. Multilingual Matters.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Engel de Abreu, P. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 974–986. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028390
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ettlinger, M., Bradlow, A. R., & Wong, P. C. M. (2014). Variability in the learning of complex morphophonology. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(4), 807–831. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716412000586
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
French L. (2006). Phonological working memory and second language acquisition: A developmental study of francophone children learning English in Quebec. Edwin Mellen Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
French, L. M., & O’Brien, I. (2008). Phonological memory and children’s second language grammar learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29(3), 463–487. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716408080211
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gagné, N., French, L. M., & Hummel, K. M. (2022). Investigating the contribution of L1 fluency, L2 initial fluency, working memory and phonological memory to L2 fluency development. Language Teaching Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221076418
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Goo, J. (2012). Corrective feedback and working memory capacity in interaction-driven L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(3), 445–474. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263112000149
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Grey, S., Cox, J. G., Serafini, E. J., & Sanz, C. (2015). The role of individual differences in the study abroad context: Cognitive capacity and language development during short-term intensive language exposure. The Modern Language Journal, 99(1), 137–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12190
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gutiérrez, X. (2013). The construct validity of grammaticality judgment tests as measures of implicit and explicit knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(3), 423–449. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263113000041
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004). The generality of working-memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(2), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kim, Y., Payant, C., & Pearson, P. (2015). The intersection of task-based interaction, task complexity, and working memory: L2 question development through recasts in a laboratory setting. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(3), 549–581. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263114000618
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kutner, M. H., Nachtsheim, C. J., & Neter, J. (2004). Applied linear regression models. McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Laessig, R. D., Duckett, E. J. (1979). Canonical correlation analysis: potential for environmental health planning. American Journal of Public Health, 69(4), 353–360. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.69.4.353
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Learning grammar: From grammar to grammaring. Henle & Heinle.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Li, S. (2013). The differential roles of language analytic ability and working memory in mediating the effects of two types of feedback on the acquisition of an opaque linguistic structure. In C. Sanz, & B. Lado (Eds.), Individual differences, L2 development & language program administration: From theory to application (pp. 32–52). Cengage Learning.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Li, S. (2019). Six decades of language aptitude research: A comprehensive and critical review. In Z. E. Wen, P. Skehan, A. Biedroń, S. Li, & R. Sparks (Eds.), Language aptitude: Advancing theory, testing, research and practice (pp. 78–97). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Li, S., Ellis, R., & Zhu, Y. (2019). The associations between cognitive ability and L2 development under five different instructional conditions. Applied Psycholinguistics, 40(3), 693–722. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716418000796
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Linck, J. A., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. F. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(4), 861–883. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0565-2
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Martin, K. I., & Ellis, N. C. (2012). The roles of phonological STM and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(3), 379–413. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263112000125
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
O’Brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Collentine, J., & Freed, B. (2006). Phonological memory and lexical, narrative, and grammatical skills in second language oral production by adult learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27(3), 377–402. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716406060322
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Paradis, M. (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages. John Benjamins.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pawlak, M. (2019). Tapping the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge: Methodological issues. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (Ed.), Contacts & contrasts in educational contexts and translation (pp. 45–60). Springer Nature.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pawlak, M., & Biedroń, A. (2019) Verbal working memory as a predictor of explicit and implicit knowledge of English passive voice. Journal of Second Language Studies, 2(2), 258–280. https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.19007.paw
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pawlak, M., & Biedroń, A. (2021). Working memory as a factor mediating explicit and implicit knowledge of English grammar. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 41, 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190521000052
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pienemann, M., & Lenzing, A. (2015). Processability theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (2nd ed., pp. 159–179). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is ‘big’? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64(4), 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Révész, A. (2012). Working memory and the observed effectiveness of recasts on different L2 outcome measures. Language Learning, 62(1), 93–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00690.x
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sagarra, N. (2017). Longitudinal effects of working memory on L2 grammar and reading abilities. Second Language Research, 33(3), 341–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658317690577
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Santamaria, K., & Sunderman, G. (2015). Working memory in processing instruction: The acquisition of L2 French clitics. In Z. Wen, M. B. Mota, & A. McNeill (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 205–223). Multilingual Matters.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sanz, C., Lin, H.-J., Lado, B., Stafford, C. A., & Bowden, H.W. (2014). One size fits all? Learning conditions and working memory capacity in ab initio language development. Applied Linguistics, 37(5). 669–692. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu058
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Serafini, E. & Sanz, C. (2016). Evidence for the decreasing impact of cognitive ability on second language development as proficiency increases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 607–46. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263115000327
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Suzuki, Y., & DeKeyser, R. M. (2017). The interface of explicit and implicit knowledge in a second language: Insights from individual differences in cognitive aptitudes. Language Learning, 67(4), 747–790. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12241
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Pearson.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tagarelli, K. M., Borges Mota, M., & Rebuschat, P. (2015). Working memory, learning conditions, and the acquisition of L2 syntax. In Z. Wen, M. Borges Mota, & A. McNeill (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing: theory, research and commentary (pp. 224–247). Multilingual Matters.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ullman, M. T. (2015). The declarative/procedural model. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (2nd ed., pp. 135–158). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Verhagen, J., Leseman, P., & Messer, M. (2015). Phonological memory and the acquisition of grammar in child L2 learners. Language Learning, 65(2), 417–448. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12101
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (1996). The measurement of verbal working memory capacity and its relation to reading comprehension. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49(1), 51–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/713755607
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wen, E. Z. (2016). Working memory and second language learning: Towards an integrated approach. Multilingual Matters.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wen, E. Z. (2019). Working memory as language aptitude: The phonological / executive model. In Z. E. Wen, P. Skehan, A. Biedroń, S. Li, & R. Sparks (Eds.), Language aptitude: Advancing theory, testing, research and practice (pp. 187–215). Routledge.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wen, E. Z., Biedroń, A., & Skehan, P. (2016). Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Language Teaching 50(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444816000276
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wen, Z., & Li, S. (2019). Working memory in L2 learning and processing. In J. Schwieter & A. Benati (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of language learning (pp. 365–389). Cambridge University Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Williams, J. N., & Lovatt, P. (2003). Phonological memory and rule learning. Language Learning, 53(1), 67–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00211
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zhang, R. (2015). Measuring university-level L2 learners’ implicit and explicit linguistic knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(3), 457–486. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263114000370
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zychowicz, K., Biedroń, A., & Pawlak, M. (2017). Polish Listening Span: A new tool for measuring verbal working memory. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7, 601–618.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zychowicz, K., Biedroń, A., & Pawlak, M. (2018). Polish Nonword Span (PNWSPAN): A new tool for measuring phonological loop capacity. Glottodidactica, 45(2). 309–327. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/gl.2018.45.2.18
Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Working Memory Capacity, TL Grammar Attainment and Length of Study as Predictors of Explicit and Implicit (Automatized) Knowledge of English Passive Voice

Abstract

Paradigm

My account