Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Towards a Systems-Based Framework for Digital Educational Equity in Open, Distance, and Digital Education Cover

Towards a Systems-Based Framework for Digital Educational Equity in Open, Distance, and Digital Education

Open Access
|Jun 2026

References

  1. Aksoy, D. A., Kurşun, E., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2025). Factors affecting the sustainability of open educational resource initiatives in higher education: A systematic review. Review of Education, 13(1). 10.1002/rev3.70029
  2. Archer, E., & Prinsloo, P. (2017). Some exploratory thoughts on Openness and an ethics of care. In D. Singh & C. Stückelberger (Eds.), Ethics in higher education: Values-driven leaders for the future (pp. 273286). Globethics.net, Global Series.
  3. Bond, M., Khosravi, H., Laat, M., Bergdahl, N., Negrea, V., Oxley, E., Pham, P., Chong, S. W., & Siemens, G. (2024). A meta systematic review of artificial intelligence in higher education: A call for increased ethics, collaboration, and rigour. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21(1). 10.1186/s41239-023-00436-z
  4. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241258). Greenwood.
  5. Bozkurt, A., Gjelsvik, T., Adam, T., Asino, T. I., Atenas, J., Bali, M., Blomgren, C., Bond, M., Bonk, C. J., Brown, M., Burgos, D., Conrad, D., Costello, E., Cronin, C., Czerniewicz, L., Deepwell, M., Deimann, M., DeWaard, H. J., Dousay, T. A., … Zawacki-Richter, O. (2023). Openness in education as a praxis: From individual testimonials to collective voices. Open Praxis, 15(2), 76112. 10.55982/openpraxis.15.2.574
  6. Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Our common future. United Nations, World Commission on Environment and Development.
  7. Cefa, B. (2025). Learner support as communication: From service culture to (eco)systems in open, distance, and digital education (ODDE). EdArXiv. 10.35542/osf.io/dhwns_v1
  8. Cefa, B., Macgilchrist, F., ElGamal, H., Bai, J. Y. H., Zawacki-Richter, O., & Loglo, F. S. (2025). Responses to the initial hype: ChatGPT supporting teaching, learning, and scholarship? Open Praxis, 17(2), 227250. 10.55982/openpraxis.17.2.872
  9. Cefa, B., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2025). Mapping the dropout phenomenon in open, distance, and digital education (ODDE): A conceptual analysis. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 27(2), 115. 10.65043/eurodl.153
  10. Connell, R. (2020). Southern Theory: The global dynamics of knowledge in social science. Routledge. 10.4324/9781003117346
  11. Czerniewicz, L. (2018a). Inequality as higher education goes online. In N. Bonderup Dohn, S. Cranmer, J.-A. Sime, M. De Laat, & T. Ryberg (Eds.), Networked Learning (pp. 95106). Springer International Publishing. 10.1007/978-3-319-74857-3_6
  12. Czerniewicz, L. (2018b). Unbundling and rebundling higher education in an age of inequality. EDUCAUSE Review, (November/December), 1124.
  13. Czerniewicz, L., & Carvalho, L. (2023). Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE): An equity view. In O. Zawacki-Richter & I. Jung (Eds.), Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education (pp. 441459). Springer Nature Singapore. 10.1007/978-981-19-2080-6_93
  14. Daniel, J. (1996). Mega-universities and knowledge media—Technology strategies for higher education. Kogan Page.
  15. Delling, R. M. (1971). Grundzüge einer Wissenschaft vom Fernstudium. Epistolodidaktika, 1, 1428.
  16. García-Alonso, E.-M. (2026). From digital divides to algorithmic governance – AI and the reproduction of educational inequalities. In R. Kimmons (Ed.), Artificial intelligence ethics, law, and policy. IntechOpen. 10.5772/intechopen.1014994
  17. Graham, M., Hjorth, I., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2017). Digital labour and development: Impacts of global digital labour platforms and the gig economy on worker livelihoods. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 23(2), 135162. 10.1177/1024258916687250
  18. Hansen, J. D., & Reich, J. (2015). Democratizing education? Examining access and usage patterns in massive open online courses. Science, 350(6265), 12451248. 10.1126/science.aab3782
  19. Hargittai, E. (2002). Second-level digital divide: differences in people’s online skills. First Monday, 7(4). 10.5210/fm.v7i4.942
  20. Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 19001902. 10.1126/science.1128898
  21. Helsper, E. J. (2021). The digital disconnect: The causes and consequences of digital inequalities. Sage Publications. 10.4135/9781526492982
  22. Kalz, M. (2023). Open Education as Social Movement? Between Evidence-Based Research and Activism. In O. Zawacki-Richter & I. Jung (Eds.), Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education (pp. 4356). Springer Nature Singapore. 10.1007/978-981-19-2080-6_3
  23. Karan, B., & Angadi, G. R. (2024). Potential risks of artificial intelligence integration into school education: a systematic review. Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 43(3–4), 6785. Scopus. 10.1177/02704676231224705
  24. Kuhn, C., Khoo, S.-M., Czerniewicz, L., Lilley, W., Bute, S., Crean, A., Abegglen, S., Burns, T., Sinfield, S., Jandrić, P., Knox, J., & MacKenzie, A. (2023). Understanding digital inequality: A theoretical kaleidoscope. Postdigital Science and Education, 5(3), 894932. 10.1007/s42438-023-00395-8
  25. Li, H. (2023). AI in Education: Bridging the Divide or Widening the Gap? Exploring Equity, Opportunities, and Challenges in the Digital Age. Advances in Education, Humanities and Social Science Research, 8(1), 355. 10.56028/aehssr.8.1.355.2023
  26. Laurillard, D. (2024). The power of ODDE: Is it equal to the challenges of the SDGs? Journal of Open, Distance, and Digital Education, 1(1), 116. 10.25619/DL6DCH74
  27. Luhmann, N. (2005). Social systems. Stanford Univ. Press.
  28. Luhmann, N. (2012). Theory of society (R. Barrett, Trans.; Vol. 1). Stanford University Press.
  29. Luhmann, N. (2013). Theory of society (R. Barrett, Trans.; Vol. 2). Stanford University Press.
  30. Memarian, B., & Doleck, T. (2023). Fairness, Accountability, Transparency, and Ethics (FATE) in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and higher education: A systematic review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, 100152. Scopus. 10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100152
  31. Muldoon, J., Cant, C., Graham, M., & Ustek Spilda, F. (2025). The poverty of ethical AI: Impact sourcing and AI supply chains. AI & Society, 40(2), 529543. 10.1007/s00146-023-01824-9
  32. Nichols, M. (Eds.). (2025). Mega-universities and opening education by design. International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE). https://icde.org/publication/mega-universities-and-opening-universities-by-design/
  33. O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of math destruction: How big data increases inequality and threatens democracy. Penguin Books.
  34. Peters, O. (1998). Learning and teaching in distance education. Kogan Page.
  35. Prinsloo, P. (2025). Reflections (from the Global South) on publishing research in open,distance and distributed/digital learning. https://inspired.oum.edu.my/issues/23/page-6.php
  36. Robinson, L., Cotten, S. R., Ono, H., Quan-Haase, A., Mesch, G., Chen, W., Schulz, J., Hale, T. M., & Stern, M. J. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 569582. 10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532
  37. Selwyn, N. (2019). Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Polity Press.
  38. Selwyn, N. (2022). Education and technology: Key issues and debates (Third edition). Bloomsbury Academic. 10.5040/9781350145573
  39. Selwyn, N. (2024). On the limits of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in education. Nordisk Tidsskrift for Pedagogikk Og Kritikk, 10(1), 314. 10.23865/ntpk.v10.6062
  40. Sen, A. (1992). Inequality reexamined. Harvard University Press.
  41. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.
  42. Siemens, G., & Baker, R. S. J. D. (2012). Learning analytics and educational data mining: Towards communication and collaboration. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge, 252254. 10.1145/2330601.2330661
  43. Simpson, O. (2002). Supporting students in online, open and distance learning (Vol. 2nd). Kogan Page.
  44. Simpson, O. (2003). Student Retention in Online, Open and Distance Learning. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203416563
  45. Stöter, J., Bullen, M., Zawacki-Richter, O., & von Prümmer, C. (2014). From the back door into the mainstream – the characteristics of lifelong learners. In O. Zawacki-Richter & T. Anderson (Eds.), Online distance education—Towards a research agenda (pp. 421457). Athabasca University Press. 10.15215/aupress/9781927356623.01
  46. Tait, A. (2000). Planning student support for open and distance learning. Open Learning, 15(3), 287299. 10.1080/713688410
  47. Tait, A. (2008). What are open universities for? Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 23(2), 8593. 10.1080/02680510802051871
  48. Therborn, G. (2013). The killing fields of inequality. Polity.
  49. Tinto, V. (1986). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. University of Chicago Press.
  50. UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Inclusion and education. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373718
  51. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations.
  52. U.S. Department of Commerce. (1995). Falling through the net: A Survey of the ‘Have Nots’ in rural and urban America. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.ntia.gov/page/falling-through-net-survey-have-nots-rural-and-urban-america
  53. Van Deursen, A. J., & Van Dijk, J. A. (2014). The digital divide shifts to differences in usage. New Media & Society, 16(3), 507526. 10.1177/1461444813487959
  54. Van Dijk, J. (2005). The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Information Society. SAGE Publications, Inc. 10.4135/9781452229812
  55. Warschauer, M. (2004). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/6699.001.0001
  56. Wedemeyer, C. A. (1981). Learning at the back door: Reflections on non-traditional learning in the lifespan. The University of Wisconsin Press.
  57. Wei, K.-K., Teo, H.-H., Chan, H. C., & Tan, B. C. Y. (2011). Conceptualizing and Testing a Social Cognitive Model of the Digital Divide. Information Systems Research, 22(1), 170187. 10.1287/isre.1090.0273
  58. Weller, M. (2014). The battle for open: How openness won and why it doesn’t feel like victory. https://www.oapen.org/search?identifier=533876
  59. Williamson, B., Bayne, S., & Shay, S. (2020). The datafication of teaching in higher education: Critical issues and perspectives. Teaching in Higher Education, 25(4), 351365. 10.1080/13562517.2020.1748811
  60. Wilson, H. (1971). The Labour Government 1964–1970. Weidenfeld/Michael Joseph.
  61. Woodley, A., & Simpson, O. (2014). Learner support in online distance education: Essential and evolving. In O. Zawacki-Richter & T. Anderson (Eds.), Online distance education—Towards a research agenda (pp. 287310). Athabasca University Press.
  62. World Bank. (2021). World development report 2021: Data for better lives. World Bank. https://wdr2021.worldbank.org/the-report/
  63. Xiao, J. (2018). On the margins or at the center? Distance education in higher education. Distance Education, 39(2), 259274. 10.1080/01587919.2018.1429213
  64. Zawacki-Richter, O. (2009). Research areas in distance education: A Delphi study. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 10(3). 10.19173/irrodl.v10i3.674
  65. Zawacki-Richter, O. (2023). Speaking Personally – with Otto Peters. American Journal of Distance Education, 19. 10.1080/08923647.2023.2294668
  66. Zawacki-Richter, O. (2026a). A systems Weltanschauung of Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE). Journal of Open, Distance, and Digital Education, 2(2), 121. 10.25619/7tcwxe39
  67. Zawacki-Richter, O. (2026b). What can open, distance, and digital education (ODDE) contribute to a sustainable future? Implications for leadership. In D. C. L. Lim & M. T. Ninggal (Eds.), Critical perspectives on AI, digitalisation, and humancentred learning: Towards reclaiming digital education futures. Springer Nature.
  68. Zawacki-Richter, O., & Anderson, T. (Eds). (2014). Online distance education—Towards a research agenda. Athabasca University Press. https://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/120233
  69. Zawacki-Richter, O., & Bozkurt, A. (2023). Research trends in open, distance, and digital education. In O. Zawacki-Richter & I. Jung (Eds.), Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education (pp. 199220). Springer Nature Singapore. 10.1007/978-981-19-2080-6_12
  70. Zawacki-Richter, O., & Jung, I. (Eds). (2023). Handbook of Open, Distance, and Digital Education. Springer. https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-981-19-0351-9
  71. Zawacki-Richter, O., & Naidu, S. (2016). Mapping research trends from 35 years of publications in Distance Education. Distance Education, 37(3), 245269. 10.1080/01587919.2016.1185079
  72. Zawacki-Richter, O., Conrad, D., Bozkurt, A., Aydin, C. H., Bedenlier, S., Jung, I., Stöter, J., Veletsianos, G., Blaschke, L. M., Bond, M., Broens, A., Bruhn, E., Dolch, C., Kalz, M., Kondakci, Y., Marin, V., Mayrberger, K., Müskens, W., Naidu, S., … Xiao, J. (2020). Elements of open education: An invitation to future research. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 21(3). 10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659
  73. Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. Profile books.
Language: English
Page range: 381 - 397
Submitted on: May 11, 2026
Accepted on: May 20, 2026
Published on: Jun 2, 2026
Published by: International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2026 Olaf Zawacki-Richter, published by International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.