References
- Murad MH, Coto-Yglesias F, Varkey P, Prokop LJ, Murad AL. The Effectiveness of self-directed Learning in Health Professions education: a Systematic Review. Medical Education. 2010;44(11):1057–1068. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03750.x
- Morris TH. Self-directed learning: A fundamental competence in a rapidly changing world. Int Rev Educ. 2019;65:633–653. DOI: 10.1007/s11159-019-09793-2
- Robinson J, Persky A. Developing Self-Directed Learners. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2019;84. DOI: 10.1007/s11159-019-09793-2
- Knowles M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press.
- Edgar L, Roberts S, Holmboe E. Milestones 2.0: A Step Forward. J Grad Med Educ. 2018;10(3):367–369. DOI: 10.4300/JGME-D-18-00372.1
- Cutrer W, Pusic M, Gruppen LD, Hammoud MM, Santen SA. The Master Adaptive Learner. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2020.
- Knowles MS, Holton EF, Swanson RA. The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. 7th ed. New York, NY: Routledge; 2011.
- Taylor B, Kroth M. Andragogy’s Transition into the Future: Meta-Analysis of Andragogy and Its Search for a Measurable Instrument. J Adult Educ. 2009;38(1):1–11.
- Van Merriënboer JJ, Sweller J. Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies. Med Educ. 2010;44(1):85–93. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x
- Kusurkar RA, Ten Cate TJ, van Asperen M, Croiset G. Motivation as an independent and a dependent variable in medical education: a review of the literature. Med Teach. 2011;33(5):e242–e262. DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2011.558539
- Ten Cate TJ, Kusurkar RA, Williams GC. How self-determination theory can assist our understanding of the teaching and learning processes in medical education. AMEE guide No. 59. Med Teach. 2011;33(12):961–973. DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2011.595435
- Brydges R, Butler D. A reflective analysis of medical education research on self-regulation in learning and practice. Med Educ. 2012;46(1):71–79. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04100.x
- Saks K, Leijen A. Distinguishing Self-directed and Self-regulated Learning and Measuring them in the E-learning Context. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2014;112:190–198. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1155
- Zimmerman BJ. Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice. 2002;41(2):64–70. DOI: 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2
- Brydges R, Manzone J, Shanks D, et al. Self-regulated learning in simulation-based training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Educ. 2015;49(4):368–378. DOI: 10.1111/medu.12649
- Van Houten-Schat MA, Berkhout JJ, van Dijk N, Endedijk MD, Jaarsma ADC, Diemers AD. Self-regulated learning in the clinical context: a systematic review. Med Educ. 2018;52(10):1008–1015. DOI: 10.1111/medu.13615
- Gelan D, Peck C, Pionke D, et al. Self-directed learning assessment practices in undergraduate health professions education: A systematic review. Medical Teacher. 2023;45(11):1298–1309.
- Boody BS, Hashmi SZ, Rosenthal BD, et al. The Effectiveness of Bioskills Training for Simulated Lumbar Pedicle Screw Placement. Global Spine J. 2018;8(6):557–562. DOI: 10.1177/2192568217743505
- Brydges R, Carnahan H, Rose D, Dubrowski A. Comparing self-guided learning and educator-guided learning formats for simulation-based clinical training. J Adv Nurs. 2010;66(8):1832–1844. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05338.x
- Andersen NL, Jensen RO, Konge L, et al. Immersive Virtual Reality in Basic Point-of-Care Ultrasound Training: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2023;49(1):178–185. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2022.08.012
- Jeon J, Park S.
Self-Directed Learning versus Problem-Based Learning in Korean Nurse Education: A Quasi-Experimental Study . Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(12):1763. Published 2021 Dec 20. DOI: 10.3390/healthcare9121763 - Johnson M, Wilson D, Thompson B. A Longitudinal Assessment of Self-directed Learning Readiness and Achievement in Medical Education. Journal of Sage Publications. 2024;23(3):1242261. DOI: 10.1177/23821205241242261
- Cadorin L, Bressan V, Palese A. Instruments evaluating the self-directed learning abilities among nursing students and nurses: a systematic review of psychometric properties. BMC Med Educ. 2017;17:229. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-017-1072-3
- Kirkpatrick J, Kirkpatrick W. The Kirkpatrick Four Levels: A Fresh Look After 50 Years. 2009;1–12.
- Reed DA, Beckman TJ, Wright SM, Levine RB, Kern DE, Cook DA. Predictive validity evidence for medical education research study quality instrument scores: quality of submissions to JGIM’s Medical Education Special Issue. J Gen Intern Med. 2008;23(7):903–907. DOI: 10.1007/s11606-008-0664-3
- Cook DA, Reed DA. Appraising the quality of medical education research methods: the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale-Education. Acad Med. 2015;90(8):1067–1076. DOI: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000786
- Cooper H, Hedges LV, Valentine JC. (Eds.). (2009). The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed.). Russell Sage Foundation.
- Lipsey MW, Wilson DB. Practical meta-analysis. 2001; Sage Publications, Inc.
- Wilson DB. Practical meta-analysis effect size calculator. (Version 2023.11.27).
- Viechtbauer W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software. 2010;36(3):1–48. DOI: 10.18637/jss.v036.i03
- Alba GA, Kelmenson DA, Noble VE, Murray AF, Currier PF. Faculty staff-guided versus self-guided ultrasound training for internal medicine residents. Medical Education. 2013;47(11):1099–108. DOI: 10.1111/medu.12259
- Ariana A, Amin M, Pakneshan S, Dolan-Evans E, Lam AK. Integration of Traditional and E-Learning Methods to Improve Learning Outcomes for Dental Students in Histopathology. Journal of Dental Education. 2016;80(9):1140–8. DOI: 10.1002/j.0022-0337.2016.80.9.tb06196.x
- Assadi T, Mofidi M, Rezai M, Hafezimoghadam P, Maghsoudi M, Mosaddegh R, et al. The comparison between two methods of basic life support instruction: Video self-instruction versus traditional method. Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2015;22(5):291–6. DOI: 10.1177/102490791502200505
- Babu R, Bahuleyan B, Panchu P, Shilpa AV, Sreeja CK, Manjuran DJ. Effectiveness of Self-paced and Instructor-led Online Learning: A Study among Phase I Medical Students. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2022;16(1):JC01–JC4. DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2022/51778.15837
- Canty DJ, Hayes JA, Story DA, Royse CF. Ultrasound simulator-assisted teaching of cardiac anatomy to preclinical anatomy students: A pilot randomized trial of a three-hour learning exposure. Anatomical Sciences Education. 2015;8(1):21–30. DOI: 10.1002/ase.1452
- Chakraborty S, Chaudhuri A, Mukherjee A, Adhya D. A study to evaluate the outcomes of traditional lecture classes and self-directed learning sessions among the first MBBS students in the department of physiology. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2022;12(11):1880–6. DOI: 10.5455/njppp.2022.12.03114202214032022
- Chartrand G, Soucisse M, Dubé P, Trépanier JS, Drolet P, Sideris L. Self-directed learning by video as a means to improve technical skills in surgery residents: a randomized controlled trial. BMC medical education. 2021;21(1):91. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-02524-y
- Chen L, Tang XJ, Liu Q, Zhang X. Self-directed learning: Alternative for traditional classroom learning in undergraduate ophthalmic education during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. HELIYON. 2023;9(5). DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15632
- Crihfield EG, Uppalapati P, Abittan B, Laibangyang A, Brahmbhatt S, Burlingame M, et al. Development of laparoscopic skills in skills-naïve trainees using self-directed learning with take-home laparoscopic trainer boxes. Surgery Open Science. 2023;16:82–93. DOI: 10.1016/j.sopen.2023.09.021
- Dąbrowski F, Stogowski P, Białek J, Fliciński F, Piotrowski M, Pankowski R, et al. Video-Based Microsurgical Education versus Stationary Basic Microsurgical Course: A Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Study. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery. 2022;38(7):585–92. DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1750122
- Daly C, Vennalaganti P, Soudagar S, Hornung B, Sharma P, Gupta N. Randomized controlled trial of self-directed versus in-classroom teaching of narrow-band imaging for diagnosis of Barrett’s esophagus-associated neoplasia. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. 2016;83(1):101–6. DOI: 10.1016/j.gie.2015.06.044
- Díaz Agea JL, Megías Nicolás A, García Méndez JA, Adánez Martínez MG, Leal Costa C. Improving simulation performance through Self-Learning Methodology in Simulated Environments (MAES©). Nurse Education Today. 2019;76:62–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2019.01.020
- Ding JB, Yap ASJ, Thng ZX, Gan NY, Tan JCH, Yip CC. Investigating mental rehearsal’s applicability in guiding independent E-learning (IMAGINE) of eye examination skills during the pandemic. Medical Teacher; 2022. DOI: 10.1080/0142159X.2022.2145941
- Egro FM, Tayler-Grint LC, Vangala SK, Nwaiwu CA. Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial to Assess an e-Learning on Acute Burns Management. Journal of burn care & research: official publication of the American Burn Association. 2018;39(1):94–9. DOI: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000528
- Farahani S, Farahani I, Burckhardt BB, Schwender H, Laeer S. Self-instruction video versus face-to-face instruction of pharmacy students’ skills in blood pressure measurement. Pharmacy. 2020;8(4):1–14. DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy8040217
- Gárate IB, Berrotarán GB. Self-directed pharmacotherapy learning to fifth-year pharmacy students in Spain. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research. 2015;49(1):10–7. DOI: 10.5530/ijper.49.1.2
- Gat T, Galante O, Sadeh R, Kobal SL, Fuchs L. Self-learning of cardiac ultrasound by medical students: can augmented online training improve and maintain manual POCUS skills over time? J Ultrasound. 2024;27(1):73–80. DOI: 10.1007/s40477-023-00804-5
- Isa MH, Lim K, Jaafar MJ, Saiboon IM. The Effectiveness of Self-Instructional Video vs. Classroom Teaching Method on Focused Assessment With Sonography in Trauma Among House Officers in University Hospital. Frontiers in Surgery. 2021;8. DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2021.698774
- Jang K, Kim SH, Oh JY, Mun JY. Effectiveness of self-re-learning using video recordings of advanced life support on nursing students’ knowledge, self-efficacy, and skills performance. BMC Nursing. 2021;20(1). DOI: 10.1186/s12912-021-00573-8
- Kolko RP, Kass AE, Hayes JF, Levine MD, Garbutt JM, Proctor EK, et al. Provider Training to Screen and Initiate Evidence-Based Pediatric Obesity Treatment in Routine Practice Settings: A Randomized Pilot Trial. Journal of pediatric health care: official publication of National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners. 2017;31(1):16–28. DOI: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2016.01.001
- Krogh CL, Konge L, Bjurström J, Ringsted C. Training on a new, portable, simple simulator transfers to performance of complex bronchoscopy procedures. Clinical Respiratory Journal. 2013;7(3):237–44. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-699X.2012.00311.x
- Lwin AT, Lwin T, Naing P, Oo Y, Kidd D, Cerullo M, et al. Self-Directed Interactive Video-Based Instruction Versus Instructor-Led Teaching for Myanmar House Surgeons: A Randomized, Noninferiority Trial. Journal of Surgical Education. 2018;75(1):238–46. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2017.06.004
- Maggio MP, Hariton-Gross K, Gluch J. The use of independent, interactive media for education in dental morphology. Journal of Dental Education. 2012;76(11):1497–511. DOI: 10.1002/j.0022-0337.2012.76.11.tb05412.x
- Makai GE, Schaeffer KD, Sloan NL. Independent learning of electrosurgery in gynecology: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Gynecologic Surgery. 2017;33(2):51–6. DOI: 10.1089/gyn.2016.0068
- Maloney E, Hippe DS, Paladin A, Chew FS, Ha AS. Musculoskeletal Ultrasound Training for Radiology Residents: Lecture Versus Interactive Learning Module. Academic Radiology. 2016;23(7):789–96. DOI: 10.1016/j.acra.2015.11.018
- Marmol MT, Braga F, Garbin LM, Moreli L, dos Santos CB, de Carvalho EC. Central catheter dressing in a simulator: the effects of tutor’s assistance or self-learning tutorial. Revista Latino-Americana De Enfermagem. 2012;20(6):1134–41. DOI: 10.1590/S0104-11692012000600016
- Minagawa A, Mikoshiba Y, Koga H, Okuyama R. Dermoscopy image-based self-learning on computer improves diagnostic performance of medical students compared with classroom-style lecture in ultra-short period. Journal of Dermatology. 2020;47(12):1432–5. DOI: 10.1111/1346-8138.15592
- Mohd Saiboon I, Jaafar MJ, Ahmad NS, Nasarudin NM, Mohamad N, Ahmad MR, et al. Emergency skills learning on video (ESLOV): A single-blinded randomized control trial of teaching common emergency skills using self-instruction video (SIV) versus traditional face-to-face (FTF) methods. Medical Teacher. 2014;36(3):245–50. DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.857013
- Morente L, Morales-Asencio JM, Veredas FJ. Effectiveness of an e-learning tool for education on pressure ulcer evaluation. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2014;23(13–14):2043–52. DOI: 10.1111/jocn.12450
- Nathaniel TI, Gainey JC, Williams JA, Stewart BL, Hood MC, Brechtel LE, et al. Impact and educational outcomes of a small group self-directed teaching strategy in a clinical neuroscience curriculum. Anatomical Sciences Education. 2018;11(5):478–87. DOI: 10.1002/ase.1759
- Peine A, Kabino K, Spreckelsen C. Self-directed learning can outperform direct instruction in the course of a modern German medical curriculum – results of a mixed methods trial. BMC medical education. 2016;16:158. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-016-0679-0
- Peroz I, Beuche A, Peroz N. Randomized controlled trial comparing lecture versus self studying by an online tool. Medical Teacher. 2009;31(6):508–12. DOI: 10.1080/01421590802203504
- Qureshi A, Rizvi F, Syed A, Shahid A, Manzoor H. The method of loci as a mnemonic device to facilitate learning in endocrinology leads to improvement in student performance as measured by assessments. Advances in physiology education. 2014;38(2):140–4. DOI: 10.1152/advan.00092.2013
- Rauch A, Jahn F, Roesner A, Hahnel S, Schierz O. Impact of the DC/TMD instructional video on the practical skills of undergraduate students-A single-blinded, randomized controlled trial. European journal of dental education: official journal of the Association for Dental Education in Europe. 2021;25(3):435–41. DOI: 10.1111/eje.12618
- Rogan S, Taeymans J, Zuber S, Zinzen E. Impact of guided self-study on learning success in undergraduate physiotherapy students in Switzerland – a feasibility study of a higher education intervention. BMC medical education. 2021;21(1):362. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-02794-6
- Romero P, Gerhaeuser A, Carstensen L, Kössler-Ebs J, Wennberg E, Schmidt MW, et al. Learning of Intracorporal Knot Tying in Minimally Invasive Surgery by Video or Expert Instruction. European Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2022;33(3):228–33. DOI: 10.1055/a-1868-6050
- Roppolo LP, Heymann R, Pepe P, Wagner J, Commons B, Miller R, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing traditional training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to self-directed CPR learning in first year medical students: The two-person CPR study. Resuscitation. 2011;82(3):319–25. DOI: 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.10.025
- Shanks D, Brydges R, den Brok W, Nair P, Hatala R. Are two heads better than one? Comparing dyad and self-regulated learning in simulation training. Medical Education. 2013;47(12):1215–22. DOI: 10.1111/medu.12284
- Stolz D, Langewitz W, Meyer A, Pierer K, Tschudi P, S’ng CT, et al. Enhanced Didactic Methods of Smoking Cessation Training for Medical Students-A Randomized Study. Nicotine and Tobacco Research. 2012;14(2):224–8. DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntr186
- Suji M, Ramesh S, Devi S, Prasad D, Rajan L. Recalling the definitions with a mind mapping and self-learning technique: A comparative study in undergraduate students. Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. 2020;14(4):3668–73.
- Sukhlecha A, Jadav SP, Gosai TR, Balusamy D. Student-led objective tutorials in Pharmacology: An interventional study. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2016;48(Suppl 1):S83–S8. DOI: 10.4103/0253-7613.193310
- Thompson AR, Lowrie DJ. An evaluation of outcomes following the replacement of traditional histology laboratories with self-study modules. Anatomical Sciences Education. 2017;10(3):276–85. DOI: 10.1002/ase.1659
- Van Lankveld W, Maas M, van Wijchen J, Visser V, Staal JB. Self-regulated learning in physical therapy education: a non-randomized experimental study comparing self-directed and instruction-based learning. BMC medical education. 2019;19(1):50. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-019-1484-3
- Wilbanks BA, McMullan S, Watts PI, White T, Moss J. Comparison of Video-Facilitated Reflective Practice and Faculty-Led Debriefings. Clinical Simulation in Nursing. 2020;42:1–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecns.2019.12.007
- Zia S, Jabeen F, Atta K, Sial NA. Self Directed Learning (SDL), an effective method for teaching physiology to medical students. Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences. 2016;10(3):700–3.
- Zuily S, Phialy L, Germain E, Unlu O, Dufrost V, Clerc-Urmès I, et al. Impact of antiphospholipid syndrome iBook on medical students’ improvement of knowledge: An international randomized controlled experimental study. Arthritis and Rheumatology. 2017;69.
- Berger-Estilita J, Krista L, Gogollari A, Schmitz F, Elfering A, Guttormsen S. Self-directed learning in health professions: A mixed-methods systematic review of the literature. PLoS One. 2025;20(5):
e0320530 . Published 2025 May 2. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0320530 - Charokar K, Dulloo P. Self-directed Learning Theory to Practice: A Footstep towards the Path of being a Life-long Learne. J Adv Med Educ Prof. 2022;10(3):135–144.
