Have a personal or library account? Click to login
The Forward Testing Effect is Reliable and Independent of Learners’ Working Memory Capacity Cover

The Forward Testing Effect is Reliable and Independent of Learners’ Working Memory Capacity

Open Access
|Aug 2019

References

  1. 1Abel, M., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2016). Retrieval practice can eliminate list-method directed forgetting. Memory and Cognition, 44, 1523. DOI: 10.3758/s13421-015-0539-x
  2. 2Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., & Sundararajan, N. (2017). Rethinking the use of tests: A meta-analysis of practice testing. Review of Educational Research, 87, 659701. DOI: 10.3102/0034654316689306
  3. 3Agarwal, P. K., Finley, J. R., Rose, N. S., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2017). Benefits from retrieval practice are greater for students with lower working memory capacity. Memory, 25, 764771. DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2016.1220579
  4. 4Arnold, K. M., & McDermott, K. B. (2013). Test-potentiated learning: Distinguishing between direct and indirect effects of tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39, 940945. DOI: 10.1037/a0029199
  5. 5Aslan, A., & Bäuml, K. H. T. (2011). Individual differences in working memory capacity predict retrieval-induced forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 264269. DOI: 10.1037/a0021324
  6. 6Aslan, A., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2016). Testing enhances subsequent learning in older but not in younger elementary school children. Developmental Science, 19, 992998. DOI: 10.1111/desc.12340
  7. 7Aslan, A., Zellner, M., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2010). Working memory capacity predicts listwise directed forgetting in adults and children. Memory, 18, 442450. DOI: 10.1080/09658211003742698
  8. 8Balota, D. A., Duchek, J. M., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2006). Does expanded retrieval produce benefits over equal-interval spacing? Explorations of spacing effects in healthy aging and early stage Alzheimer’s disease. Psychology and Aging, 21, 1931. DOI: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.19
  9. 9Bäuml, K.-H. T., & Kliegl, O. (2013). The critical role of retrieval processes in release from proactive interference. Journal of Memory and Language, 68, 3953. DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.07.006
  10. 10Bertilsson, F., Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Stenlund, T., & Jonsson, B. (2017). The testing effect and its relation to working memory capacity and personality characteristics. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 16, 241259. DOI: 10.1891/1945-8959.16.3.241
  11. 11Brewer, G. A., & Unsworth, N. (2012). Individual differences in the effects of retrieval from long-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 66, 407415. DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2011.12.009
  12. 12Carpenter, S. K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 15631569. DOI: 10.1037/a0017021
  13. 13Chan, J. C. K., Manley, K. D., Davis, S. D., & Szpunar, K. K. (2018). Testing potentiates new learning across a retention interval and a lag: A strategy change perspective. Journal of Memory and Language, 102, 8396. DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2018.05.007
  14. 14Chan, J. C. K., Meissner, C. A., & Davis, S. D. (2018). Retrieval potentiates new learning: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 144, 11111146. DOI: 10.1037/bul0000166
  15. 15Cho, K. W., Neely, J. H., Crocco, S., & Vitrano, D. (2017). Testing enhances both encoding and retrieval for both tested and untested items. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70, 12111235. DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1175485
  16. 16Coane, J. H. (2013). Retrieval practice and elaborative encoding benefit memory in younger and older adults. Journal of Applied Research in Memory & Cognition, 2, 95100. DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.04.001
  17. 17Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 769786. DOI: 10.3758/BF03196772
  18. 18Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 547552. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005
  19. 19Delaney, P. F., & Sahakyan, L. (2007). Unexpected costs of high working memory capacity following directed forgetting and contextual change manipulations. Memory & Cognition, 35, 10741082. DOI: 10.3758/BF03193479
  20. 20Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 458. DOI: 10.1177/1529100612453266
  21. 21Duyck, W., Desmet, T., Verbeke, L., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). Wordgen: A tool for word selection and non-word generation in Dutch, German, English, and French. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 488499. DOI: 10.3758/BF03195595
  22. 22Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 11491160. DOI: 10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
  23. 23Fazio, L. K., & Marsh, E. J. (in press). Retrieval-based learning in children. Current Directions in Psychological Science. DOI: 10.1177/0963721418806673
  24. 24Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley.
  25. 25Foster, J. L., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2015). Shortened complex span tasks can reliably measure working memory capacity. Memory & Cognition, 43, 226236. DOI: 10.1037/a0020919
  26. 26Garcia-Marques, L., Nunes, L. D., Marques, P., Carneiro, P., & Weinstein, Y. (2015). Adapting to test structure: Letting testing teach what to learn. Memory, 23, 365380. DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2014.889166
  27. 27Hedge, C., Powell, G., & Sumner, P. (2018). The reliability paradox: Why robust cognitive tasks do not produce reliable individual differences. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 11661186. DOI: 10.3758/s13428-017-0935-1
  28. 28Hogan, R. M., & Kintsch, W. (1971). Differential effects of study and test trials on long-term recognition and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 562567. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80029-4
  29. 29Izawa, C. (1971). The test trial potentiating model. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 8, 200224. DOI: 10.1016/0022-2496(71)90012-5
  30. 30Karpicke, J. D. (2017). Retrieval-based learning: A decade of progress. In: J. T. Wixted (Ed.), Cognitive psychology of memory, Vol. 2 of Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference (J. H. Byrne, Series Ed.) (pp. 487514). Oxford: Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.21055-9
  31. 31Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., & Smith, M. A. (2016). Retrieval-based learning: Positive effects of retrieval practice in elementary school children. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 350. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00350
  32. 32Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2009). Metacognitive strategies in student learning: do students practise retrieval when they study on their own? Memory, 17, 471479. DOI: 10.1080/09658210802647009
  33. 33Karpicke, J. D., Lehman, M., & Aue, R. W. (2014). Retrieval-based learning: An episodic context account. In: B. H. Ross (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 61, 237284. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800283-4.00007-1
  34. 34Kliegl, O., Abel, M., & Bäuml, K. H. T. (2018). A (preliminary) recipe for obtaining a testing effect in preschool children: Two critical ingredients. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1446. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01446
  35. 35Kornell, N., Bjork, R. A., & Garcia, M. A. (2011). Why tests appear to prevent forgetting: A distribution-based bifurcation model. Journal of Memory and Language, 65, 8597. DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2011.04.002
  36. 36Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159174. DOI: 10.2307/2529310
  37. 37Lipowski, S. L., Pyc, M. A., Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2014). Establishing and explaining the testing effect in free recall for young children. Developmental Psychology, 50, 9941000. DOI: 10.1037/a0035202
  38. 38McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., III, McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24, 222243. DOI: 10.1037/a0017619
  39. 39Meyer, A. N., & Logan, J. M. (2013). Taking the testing effect beyond the college freshman: Benefits for lifelong learning. Psychology and Aging, 28, 142147. DOI: 10.1037/a0030890
  40. 40Minear, M., Coane, J. H., Boland, S. C., Cooney, L. H., & Albat, M. (2018). The benefits of retrieval practice depend on item difficulty and intelligence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44, 14741486. DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000486
  41. 41Moreira, B. F. T., Pinto, T. S. S., Starling, D. S. V., & Jaeger, A. (2019). Retrieval practice in classroom settings: a review of applied research. Frontiers in Education, 4, 5. DOI: 10.3389/feduc.2019.00005
  42. 42Nunnally, J. C. (1970). Introduction to psychological measurement. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  43. 43Oberauer, K., Schulze, R., Wilhelm, O., & Süß, H. M. (2005). Working memory and intelligence--their correlation and their relation: comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005). Psychological Bulletin, 131, 6165. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.61
  44. 44Parsons, S., Kruijt, A., & Fox, E. (2018, April 5). Psychological science needs a standard practice of reporting the reliability of cognitive behavioural measurements. Preprint on PsyArXiv. DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/6ka9z
  45. 45Pastötter, B., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2014). Retrieval practice enhances new learning: the forward effect of testing. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 286. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00286
  46. 46Pastötter, B., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2019). Testing enhances subsequent learning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 34, 242250. DOI: 10.1037/pag0000307
  47. 47Pastötter, B., Eberle, H., Aue, I., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2017). Retrieval practice fails to insulate episodic memories against interference after stroke. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1074. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01074
  48. 48Pastötter, B., Engel, M., & Frings, C. (2018). The forward effect of testing: Behavioral evidence for the reset-of-encoding hypothesis using serial position analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1197. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01197
  49. 49Pastötter, B., Kliegl, O., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2012). List-method directed forgetting: The forget cue improves both encoding and retrieval of postcue information. Memory & Cognition, 40, 861873. DOI: 10.3758/s13421-012-0206-4
  50. 50Pastötter, B., Schicker, S., Niedernhuber, J., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2011). Retrieval during learning facilitates subsequent memory encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 37, 287297. DOI: 10.1037/a0021801
  51. 51Pastötter, B., Tempel, T., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2017). Long-term memory updating: The reset-of-encoding hypothesis in list-method directed forgetting. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2076. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02076
  52. 52Pastötter, B., Weber, J., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2013). Using testing to improve learning after severe traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 27, 280285. DOI: 10.1037/a0031797
  53. 53Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 2027. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
  54. 54Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006a). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181210. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x
  55. 55Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006b). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17, 249255. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x
  56. 56Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 14321463. DOI: 10.1037/a0037559
  57. 57Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurement of association between two things. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 72101. DOI: 10.2307/1412159
  58. 58Sumowski, J. F., Chiaravalloti, N., & Deluca, J. (2010). Retrieval practice improves memory in multiple sclerosis: Clinical application of the testing effect. Neuropsychology, 24, 267272. DOI: 10.1037/a0017533
  59. 59Sumowski, J. F., Wood, H. G., Chiaravalloti, N., Wylie, G. R., Lengenfelder, J., & DeLuca, J. (2010). Retrieval practice: A simple strategy for improving memory after traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16, 11471150. DOI: 10.1017/S1355617710001128
  60. 60Szpunar, K. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Expectation of a final cumulative test enhances long-term retention. Memory and Cognition, 35, 10071013. DOI: 10.3758/BF03193473
  61. 61Szpunar, K. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Testing during study insulates against the buildup of proactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 13921399. DOI: 10.1037/a0013082
  62. 62Tempel, T., & Frings, C. (2018). Feedback increases benefits but not costs of retrieval practice: Retrieval-induced forgetting is strength-independent. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 636642. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-018-1450-9
  63. 63Tse, C. S., & Pu, X. (2012). The effectiveness of test-enhanced learning depends on trait test anxiety and working-memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18, 253264. DOI: 10.1037/a0029190
  64. 64Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working memory capacity task dependent? Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 127154. DOI: 10.1016/0749-596X(89)90040-5
  65. 65Wagenmakers, E.-J., Love, J., Marsman, M., Jamil, T., Ly, A., Verhagen, A. J., et al. (2018). Bayesian inference for psychology. Part II: Example applications with JASP. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 5876. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-017-1323-7
  66. 66Wahlheim. (2015). Testing can counteract proactive interference by integrating competing information. Memory & Cognition, 43, 2738. DOI: 10.3758/s13421-014-0455-5
  67. 67Wahlheim, C. N., Alexander, T. R., & Kane, M. J. (2019). Interpolated retrieval effects on list isolation: Individual differences in working memory capacity. Memory & Cognition, 47, 619642. DOI: 10.3758/s13421-019-00893-w
  68. 68Walter, S. D., Eliasziw, M., & Donner, A. (1998). Sample size and optimal designs for reliability studies. Statistics in Medicine, 17, 101110. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19980115)17:1<;101::AID-SIM727>3.0.CO;2-E
  69. 69Weinstein, Y., Gilmore, A. W., Szpunar, K. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2014). The role of test expectancy in the build-up of proactive interference in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 10391048. DOI: 10.1037/a0036164
  70. 70Weinstein, Y., McDermott, K. B., & Szpunar, K. K. (2011). Testing protects against proactive interference in face–name learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 183, 518523. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-011-0085-x
  71. 71Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Jonsson, B., & Nyberg, L. (2014). Strengthening concept learning by repeated testing. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 55, 1016. DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12093
  72. 72Wissman, K. T., Rawson, K. A., & Pyc, M. A. (2011). The interim test effect: testing prior material can facilitate the learning of new material. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 11401147. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-011-0140-7
  73. 73Yang, C., Chew, S.-J., Sun, B., & Shanks, D. R. (2019). The forward effects of testing transfer to different domains of learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 809826. DOI: 10.1037/edu0000320
  74. 74Yang, C., Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2018). Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: A review of the FTE. npj Science of Learning, 3, 8. DOI: 10.1038/s41539-018-0024-y
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.82 | Journal eISSN: 2514-4820
Language: English
Submitted on: Mar 18, 2019
Accepted on: Aug 16, 2019
Published on: Aug 29, 2019
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

© 2019 Bernhard Pastötter, Christian Frings, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.