Table 1
Overview of Frameworks.
| # | FRAMEWORK | AUTHORS | YEAR | ORGANIZATION | FORMAT |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Deep Learn Framework | Phillips | 2024 | FH Joanneum University of Applied Sciences | Editorial |
| 2 | Supplement to the DigCompEDU Framework | Bekiaridis & Attwell | 2024 | AI Pioneers | Report |
| 3 | Framework for the Future | Becker, Parker, & Richter | 2024 | Moxie | White Paper |
| 4 | 3wAI Framework | Bozkurt | 2024 | Anadolu University | Journal Article |
| 5 | Machine Learning Education Framework | Lao | 2020 | Massachusetts Institute of Technology | Dissertation |
| 6 | Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review | Ng et al. | 2021 | University of Hong Kong | Scoping Review |
| 7 | UNESCO AI Competency Framework for Students | Miao & Shiohira | 2024 | UNESCO | Report |
| 8 | UNESCO AI Competency Framework for Teachers | Miao & Cukurova | 2024 | UNESCO | Report |
| 9 | AI Literacy Framework | Kennedy | 2023 | AI Literacy Institute | Blog |
| 10 | A Framework for AI Literacy | Hibbert et al. | 2024 | Barnard University | Editorial |
| 11 | What is AI Literacy? Competencies and Design Considerations | Long & Magerko | 2020 | Georgia Institute of Technology | Scoping Review |
| 12 | AI Across the Curriculum | Southworth et al. | 2023 | University of Florida | Journal Article |
| 13 | A systematic review of AI literacy conceptualization, constructs, and implementation and assessment efforts (2019–2023) | Almatrafi, Johri, & Lee | 2024 | King Abdulaziz University; George Mason University | Scoping Review |
| 14 | AI Literacy in Higher Education: Theory and Design | Černý | 2023 | Masaryk University | Conference Proceedings |
| 15 | The Scaffolded AI Literacy (SAIL) Framework for Education | MacCallum, Parsons & Mohaghegh | 2024 | University of Canterbury, academyEX, and AUT | Report |
| 16 | Dynamic AI Literacy Model | Chan & Colloton | 2024 | University of Hong Kong | Book Chapter |
| 17 | Critical AI Literacy | Bali | 2024 | American University in Cairo; London School of Economics | Blog |
| 18 | Rethinking the entwinement between artificial intelligence and human learning | Markauskaite et al. | 2022 | The University of Sydney (first author) | Journal Article |
Table 2
Metaphor Categories for AI.
| METAPHOR CATEGORY & WEIGHT | CATEGORY DEFINITION | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| Tool (16) | Supports or aids people in some way | aid; scaffold; crutch; enhancement |
| Transformer (16) | Changes higher education or society in some way | (re)shaper; disruption; revolution; explosion; shifting ground |
| Ubiquitary (15) | Emphasizes that AI is everywhere and unavoidable | diffusion; influx; proliferation; saturation; permeation |
| Artefact (14) | Emphasizes that AI is a human-made object and has machine-like qualities | automation; artificial being; computational being; machine |
| Threat (12) | Poses some risk or danger to education and/ or society | predator; attentional warfare; gap widener; warped lens |
| Evolution (8) | Emphasizes that AI is developing | growth; development; emergence |
| Human (7) | Assigns humanlike characteristics to AI | brain; nervous system; emotional intelligence |
| Collaborator (6) | Assigns equal status to AI and humans working together | (thought) partner; companion; teammate |
Table 3
Metaphor Categories for Students.
| METAPHOR CATEGORY & WEIGHT | CATEGORY DEFINITION | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| Analyst (15) | A person who examines something in detail to understand more about it | judge; appraiser; critic; strategist |
| Citizen (11) | A member of society who is concerned about ethics and the wellbeing of others | advocate; (model) citizen, (global) citizen |
| Creator (10) | A person who develops AI or creates with AI | contributor; tinkerer, engineer; crafter; alchemist |
| Collaborator (9) | A person who works with AI on equal footing | partner; co-creator |
| Superior (8) | A person who holds power over AI | human at the helm, kings and queens, executor |
| Future (6) | The people of tomorrow who will run society | the future; survivor |
| Explorer (6) | A person who explores a new or unfamiliar area | navigator; rider; pioneer |
| Learner (5) | A person who is gaining knowledge, skills, and experience | gardener of one’s own mind; self-educator; transformed |
Table 4
Metaphor Categories for Teachers.
| METAPHOR CATEGORY & WEIGHT | CATEGORY DEFINITION | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| Designer (16) | A person who creates pedagogical experiences, with or without the use of AI | Creator; contributor; developer; engineer |
| Guide (12) | A person who shows the way to others | mentor; facilitator; coach; equipper; counselor |
| Expert (9) | A person who is very knowledgeable about or skillful in a certain field | sage; curriculum conduit; role-model |
| Analyst (9) | A person who examines something in detail to understand more about it | judge; assessor; critic; strategist |
| Superior (8) | A person who holds power over AI | human at the helm, leader, master |
| Citizen (7) | A member of society who is concerned about ethics and the wellbeing of others | advocate; equalizer; humanitarian; social justice champion |
| Explorer (6) | A person who explores a new or unfamiliar area | navigator; rider; pioneer; innovator; driver |
| Learner (5) | A person who is gaining knowledge, skills, and experience | gardener of one’s own mind; self-educator; transformed |
Figure 1
Metaphorical Connections between Students, Teachers, and AI.
| FRAMEWORK# | ARTIF ICIAL INTELUGENCE IS SEEN AS A… | THE STUDENT IS SEEN AS A… | THETEACHERIS SEEN AS A… | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TOOL | TRANSFORMER | HUMAN | ARTIFACT | UBIQUITARV | COLLABORATOR | EVOLUTION | THREAT | COLLABORATOR | THE FUTURE | EXPLORER | SUPERIOR | ANALVST | CREATOR | CITIZEN | LEARNER | GUIDE | EXPERT | EXPLORER | SUPERIOR | ANALYST | DESIGNER | LEARNER | CITIZEN | |
| 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 5 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| 6 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
| 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| 8 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
| 9 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 10 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 11 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| 12 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 13 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 14 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | ||||||||
| 15 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 16 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
| 17 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 18 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 16 | 16 | 7 | 14 | 15 | 6 | 8 | 12 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 8 | 15 | 10 | 11 | 5 | 12 | 9 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 16 | 5 | 7 | |