Introduction
Current educational systems struggle with persistent issues such as teacher shortages, instability in retention, and difficulties in sustaining the profession’s appeal (Viac & Fraser, 2020). These dynamics interconnect, undermining both educational quality and systemic equity, particularly in contexts like Chile. In the Chilean context, teacher attrition is highly concerning: estimates indicate that almost one-third of teachers leave their school after the first year, and more than half exit the profession before completing three years (Carrasco et al., 2017).
Previous research has shown that working in highly vulnerable contexts is associated with greater emotional and professional demands, given the complex pedagogical and socio-emotional needs of students (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009; Sacco et al., 2021). These conditions not only increase the likelihood of experiencing stress and burnout but also affect teachers’ ability to sustain high levels of dedication and commitment to their work (Choi & Tang, 2009; Park, 2005). Furthermore, international evidence highlights that teachers working in disadvantaged schools report lower levels of job satisfaction and well-being, reinforcing the impact of structural conditions on professional engagement (OECD, 2019).
Multiple studies show that teacher turnover is significantly lower in schools serving students from high socioeconomic backgrounds (Borman & Dowling, 2008). Moreover, teachers with the highest academic performance tend to be concentrated in these settings, which generates an unequal distribution of human capital, where the most vulnerable schools lack professionals with better educational backgrounds (Meckes & Bascopé, 2012; Rivero, 2015). This situation perpetuates educational gaps, particularly affecting students with the greatest needs.
Teacher retention not only promotes pedagogical continuity but also enables the development of their professional effectiveness over time (Boyd et al., 2005). However, constant teacher turnover generates negative impacts on both student learning and the organisational culture of schools. Schools with high vulnerability rates — where turnover exceeds 70% — are often the most affected, further exacerbating the inequity of the system (Sacco et al., 2021).
Furthermore, this turnover entails a significant economic cost for the system, associated with the recruitment, induction, and training of new teachers — resources that could be allocated to improving the working conditions of those who choose to remain (Ronfeldt et al., 2012). Added to this is the growing level of stress in the profession, exacerbated by constantly changing curricula, scarce resources, and a lack of institutional support (Fouché, 2015). In this context, teacher well-being becomes a key, often overlooked, element that directly impacts educational quality, professional retention, and the organisational health of schools.
Ignoring teachers’ needs compromises their ability to respond to students’ pedagogical and socio-emotional demands (Devaki et al., 2019). Recent studies also support the need to consider teacher well-being as a key factor in improving educational quality, since strengthening emotional competencies and personal resources not only improves teacher well-being but also directly influences student learning (Wang, 2022). Therefore, monitoring and strengthening teacher well-being becomes a priority for both public policies and educational management. Quality education, the foundation for human capital development, cannot be sustained without adequate working conditions and a focus on the comprehensive well-being of teachers. Consequently, progress in this direction is essential to guarantee a fairer, effective, and sustainable education system.
Well-being
Building on Rebolo’s (2012) framework, teacher well-being can be described as an evolving construct shaped by the interplay of personal attributes and workplace conditions. It encompasses subjective, structural, and symbolic dimensions that together reflect how professional identity aligns — or conflicts — with institutional realities.
The subjective component encompasses personal attributes — values, expectations, training background, and career trajectories — that shape teachers’ experiences and long-term goals (Rebolo, 2012). The objective dimension, on the other hand, refers to the structural conditions of work, including work organisation, the physical environment, and socioeconomic factors. The intersection of the two forms the symbolic dimension, which reflects the correspondence (or dissonance) between the institutional context and the teacher’s personal identity, allowing for an assessment of the real impact of working conditions on their well-being.
Based on this framework, Rebolo and Constantino (2020) propose a model focused on the objective dimension of teacher well-being, structured in four key aspects:
Work Activity aspect: Considers the nature of teaching tasks, their diversity, the autonomy they allow, the challenges they entail, and the use of skills. This aspect addresses the pace of work, the sense of achievement, and the ability to exercise control over work situations.
Relational aspect: Encompasses the quality of interpersonal relationships within the institution, including freedom of expression, collaborative work, feedback, recognition, equal treatment, and participation in institutional decisions.
Socioeconomic aspect: Includes factors such as salary, job security, free time, career plans, access to professional development, and the image of the education system both internally and publicly, as well as the link between teaching work and its social impact.
Infrastructural aspect: Refers to the material conditions of the work environment, such as cleanliness, safety, availability of teaching resources, and the adequacy of facilities.
This model provides a comprehensive view of teacher well-being and identifies critical areas that can be addressed at the organisational and educational policy levels. By focusing on the objective dimension, it facilitates the design of concrete strategies aimed at improving working conditions and, consequently, teachers’ quality of life and retention in the education system.
Teacher well-being is considered crucial for educators and the academic system, as it plays an important role in teachers’ quality of life and students’ well-being, solidifying the position of teaching staff (Benevene et al., 2018; Acton & Glasgow, 2015). From a positive organisational psychology perspective, well-being at work is not only desirable but also strategic for the sustainability of organisations. From this perspective, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) argue that fostering personal strengths and healthy working conditions enables workers to better cope with adversity and function optimally (Salanova et al., 2016). Therefore, promoting teacher well-being is not only an ethical responsibility but also an effective management strategy.
Burnout
Maslach (1993, 2009) described burnout as a syndrome emerging from sustained exposure to occupational stressors. Burnout is reflected in three interrelated experiences: fatigue and depletion of energy, detachment from students and colleagues, and a diminished perception of professional efficacy (Maslach, 1993; Maslach, 2009).
The emotional dimension manifests itself in feelings of extreme fatigue and physical and psychological exhaustion, primarily caused by work overload and interpersonal conflicts. Depersonalization translates into a negative, apathetic, or cynical attitude toward work and the people involved, accompanied by a reduction in commitment and the quality of work performance. Finally, a lack of personal fulfilment is linked to the perception of ineffectiveness, lack of achievement, and loss of professional meaning, exacerbated by a lack of resources, social support, and development opportunities.
Research has shown that burnout not only affects the individual in terms of health problems, family difficulties, and a deterioration in general well-being, but also has significant organisational consequences, such as decreased performance, increased absenteeism, staff turnover, and low work engagement (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
Maslach (2009) emphasises that burnout should not be interpreted exclusively as an individual failing, but rather as a manifestation of imbalances between the worker and the social and organisational environment. In this sense, structural work conditions, such as excessive demands, low participation, insufficient recognition, or lack of equity, are determining factors that increase the risk of developing this syndrome. Therefore, addressing burnout requires organisational interventions that consider both the characteristics of the job and the human needs inherent to professional work.
In the context of the current challenges facing the education system, teacher well-being has become a crucial factor in achieving quality teaching. This dimension not only impacts teachers’ mental health and professional performance but also directly affects students’ learning experience. In this sense, it is pertinent to link this issue with Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which seeks to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (United Nations, 2015). High levels of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, or low work engagement can affect teachers’ motivation, pedagogical effectiveness, and ability to generate positive learning environments. Therefore, the deterioration of teachers’ psychosocial conditions represents not only a threat to the sustainability of the teaching career but also a structural obstacle to achieving SDG 4, by compromising the quality and equity of the educational process.
Engagement
Work engagement has been identified as a clear indicator of well-being at work, as it implies a positive physical, cognitive, and emotional connection between workers and their duties (Rodríguez Muñoz & Bakker, 2009). Work engagement has been conceptualised as a sustained positive state, expressed in vitality, dedication to tasks, and deep involvement with work demands (Schaufeli et al., 2002).
Schaufeli et al. (2002) positioned engagement as a positive work-related mindset characterised by vigour, dedication, and absorption. Although burnout and engagement have been posited as opposites on a continuum, recent evidence suggests that both constructs present independent trajectories (Acuña et al., 2021).
Vigour refers to high levels of energy and resilience in the face of work-related difficulties. Dedication implies enthusiasm, pride, and inspiration in the performance of one’s professional role. Absorption, on the other hand, manifests itself in intense concentration that generates an immersive experience, making it difficult to disconnect from work. Although all three dimensions contribute to engagement, studies indicate that absorption has a lower correlation with job resources compared to vigour and dedication (Mazzetti et al., 2021).
Furthermore, it has been observed that the relationship between engagement and its antecedents varies according to the cultural context and the educational level of workers, with personal resources being a better predictor of engagement in individuals with university degrees (Mazzetti et al., 2021).
Various research has demonstrated the key role of engagement in the workplace, where a positive relationship is observed with performance (Fonseca Herrera & Cruz Torres, 2019; Guzmán-Arellano et al., 2024a; 2024b; Maluenda-Albornoz et al., 2025) and with people’s well-being (Acuña et al., 2021; Cruz-Ausejo & Rimache, 2022), as well as lower absenteeism (Schaufeli et al., 2009). This highlights the importance of creating work environments that foster the conditions for high motivational states among workers. Furthermore, recent studies show that personal and professional development resources have a greater impact on engagement levels than traditional social and work resources (Mazzetti et al., 2021), reinforcing the importance of providing development paths at work. Studies also show that teachers with greater well-being and emotional intelligence demonstrated signs of greater engagement, which positively impacted their students’ academic outcomes (Wang, 2022).
Finally, work engagement has been consistently linked to positive organisational behaviours such as proactivity, creativity, leadership, and adaptation to change (Parker et al., 2010; Parker & Griffin, 2011), all of which are essential in demanding school environments.
Theory of job demands and resources
According to Bakker et al. (2014), the Job Demands–Resources framework explains how the tension between professional demands and the resources available shapes both well-being and performance. The JD-R framework proposes that excessive job demands deplete workers’ energy, whereas access to adequate resources fosters goal achievement and strengthens motivation.
Empirical evidence suggests that job demands predict burnout, while job resources are associated with motivation, satisfaction, and engagement (Bakker et al., 2003, 2007, 2010). Two key interactions stand out in this model: (1) resources buffer the negative effects of demands on distress, and (2) high demands enhance the positive effect of resources on engagement. Furthermore, personal resources—such as resilience and self-efficacy—dynamically interact with job resources and engagement, forming a positive feedback loop (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Although experiences of well-being and ill-being are not absolute opposites, the high correlation between variables such as engagement and burnout suggests that they are interrelated (Leiter & Maslach, 2017).
Structural Determinants of Teacher Well-Being
Emerging scholarship highlights that teacher well-being is less a matter of individual resilience and more an outcome of systemic features. Elements such as workload, governance, contractual security, and institutional culture play decisive roles in shaping teachers’ experiences across different school contexts. Large comparative reports (OECD, 2019, 2020) link these working conditions to stress, burnout, job satisfaction, and intentions to leave the profession, highlighting the salience of organisational climate and teacher participation in school governance (OECD, 2020).
In more recent studies, Steiner et al. (2024) find that excessive working hours, job-related stress, and lower compensation are strongly related to lower self-reported well-being and increased intention to leave. Steiner et al. (2025) reaffirm that teachers continue to experience significantly lower well-being compared to similar workers and underscore the persistence of structural stressors. Meanwhile, global reviews (e.g., Well-being for Schoolteachers (Taylor et al., 2024)) emphasise how organisational demands, emotional workloads, and institutional support affect teacher mental health.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses based on the Job Demands–Resources framework further indicate that job resources (e.g. autonomy, feedback, development opportunities) have robust positive associations with engagement, whereas job demands (e.g. emotional load, administrative tasks) predict strain and burnout. Complementary empirical work reinforces this: Issom et al. (2025) identify health, social support, professional development, and autonomy as central predictors of well-being in middle and high school teachers. Ozturk et al. (2025) also highlight how physical and institutional conditions, resource scarcity, and relational dynamics in schools shape teacher well-being experiences.
By positioning the School Vulnerability Index (SVI) within this literature, this study aims to test whether structural conditions—beyond individual attributes—help explain variance in dedication/engagement and burnout. Thereby, providing a comprehensive understanding of how school context shapes teacher well-being and bridging individual factors with broader institutional determinants.
Objective
To evaluate the relationships between teachers’ well-being, burnout, and work engagement, and the number of enrolled students and vulnerability indices at educational institutions in southern Chile.
Specific objectives
To measure the levels of well-being, burnout, and engagement of teachers participating in the study and identify enrolment numbers and vulnerability indices in the schools.
To analyse the relationships between enrolment numbers, vulnerability indices, well-being, burnout, and engagement among teachers working in these institutions.
To evaluate a predictive model for workplace engagement and burnout, considering relational, socioeconomic, infrastructural, and work-related aspects of objective well-being as predictors.
Methodology
Design and participants
This study is based on a quantitative approach, with a cross-sectional, multivariate design. The level of analysis is correlational-predictive, as it seeks to examine the relationship between different psychosocial variables that influence teachers’ well-being, burnout, and engagement. At the same time, it presents a descriptive component, the purpose of which is to characterise these variables in the target population.
The study population consisted of teachers teaching in municipal and subsidised private schools in the commune of Cauquenes. Schools were used as cluster units to access participants.
Data collection was carried out using a self-administered questionnaire structured into four sections. The first section was intended to collect relevant sociodemographic information, such as age, gender, educational level, marital status, and other background information.
The final study sample consisted of a total of 223 teachers, whose responses were deemed valid after meeting established ethical criteria, including acceptance of informed consent. Non-probability convenience sampling was used, selecting participants from 13 of the 14 educational establishments in the commune, representing 92.8% coverage of the local population, comprised of 578 elementary and secondary school teachers.
Regarding gender distribution, 72.2% of participants (n = 161) identified as female, 27.4% (n = 61) as male, and 0.4% (n = 1) as non-binary. In relation to age, the sample presented a diverse distribution, concentrating mainly in the range of 31 to 38 years (40.4%, n = 90), followed by the groups of 39 to 46 years (22%, n = 49), over 55 years (12.1%, n = 27), 47 to 54 years (11.7%, n = 26), and 23 to 30 years (13.9%, n = 31).
A majority of 65.5% of the total teachers (n = 146) taught elementary school, 26.9% (n = 60) taught secondary school, and 7.6% (n = 17) worked at both levels simultaneously. Professional backgrounds were categorised into three levels: beginning teachers (0 to 5 years of experience), who represented 18.4% of the sample (n = 41); intermediate teachers (6 to 15 years), with 57% (n = 127); and experienced teachers (more than 15 years), who constituted 24.7% (n = 55).
This data provides a detailed demographic and professional profile of the participants, which provides a relevant context for interpreting the study results.
Measures
The following three sections of the questionnaire were designed to assess the main research constructs, using instruments previously validated in other studies. The decision to use shortened versions of the instruments was intended to optimise the response rate, reducing the burden on participants without compromising the validity or reliability of the measures used.
Well-being
To assess teacher well-being, the Teacher Well-being Scale developed by Rebolo and Constantino (2020) was used. This scale focuses on measuring the four aspects that comprise the objective dimension of well-being: infrastructure, labour relations, work activity, and socioeconomic conditions. The abbreviated version of the instrument, composed of 14 items selected from the original 37-item scale, was applied. This version was developed using correlation and principal component analysis from the original 37-item scale. In this study, the instrument showed excellent internal consistency (α = .908).
Burnout
Teacher burnout was assessed using the Maslach Burnout Inventory – Educators Survey (MBI-ES), an adaptation of Maslach’s original instrument specifically designed for education professionals. This scale measures the three dimensions of the syndrome: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment, using 22 items answered on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 6 (from “never” to “always”).
The MBI-ES has proven empirical validity, supported by confirmatory factor analyses demonstrating a robust three-factor structure (GFI = .89, AGFI = .90, TLI = .90, NFI = .90, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .07) (Salanova et al., 2000).
Since the three dimensions do not add up directly to a total score, the personal accomplishment scale was reversed to unify the direction of the scores and facilitate interpretation of the overall burnout level, without altering the individual analyses by dimension. The scale showed acceptable reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .701.
Engagement
Participant engagement was assessed using the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) by Schaufeli et al. (2003), which measures the three dimensions of engagement: vigour, dedication, and absorption. The short version of the UWES was used, consisting of 9 items, equally distributed with 3 items per dimension, and answered on a Likert scale ranging from 0 to 6.
The three-factor model of the scale has been validated in previous studies using confirmatory factor analysis, presenting robust fit indices (GFI = .95, AGFI = .90, RMSEA = .03, NFI = .95, CFI = .96). The scale showed high internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .906. Furthermore, the short version used has been specifically validated in the Chilean context (Juyumaya, 2019).
Data Analysis Section
To ensure the reliability and transferability of the findings, a detailed data analysis was performed. The following procedures were conducted to verify statistical assumptions and to specify the methods used (Table 1).
Table 1
Statistical tests applied and main outcomes.
| TEST/ASSUMPTION | PURPOSE | APPLICATION IN THIS STUDY |
|---|---|---|
| Shapiro-Wilk/Kolmogorov-Smirnov | Normality of data distribution | Applied by variable (n < 30: Shapiro-Wilk; n > 30: K-S) |
| Levene’s Test | Homogeneity of variances (homoscedasticity) | Applied across categories (gender, age, contract type, etc.) |
| Pearson/Spearman Correlations | Association between continuous variables | Pearson when normality held; Spearman otherwise |
| Multiple Linear Regression (JASP) | Testing predictors of well-being, burnout, engagement | All main variables included (age, years of teaching, SVI, etc.) |
| Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) | Multicollinearity check among predictors | Applied to regression models |
| Residuals Analysis | Homoscedasticity and linearity in regression models | Standardised residuals inspected |
Data were processed using IBM SPSS Statistics, version 29.0.1.0, for descriptive analyses and preliminary tests, and JASP, version 0.18.1, for multiple linear regression models. Missing values (up to three per item, totalling 20) were addressed using median imputation, given the ordinal nature of Likert scales.
To verify the assumptions of parametric analyses, normality was tested with the Shapiro-Wilk test (n < 30) and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (n > 30). Depending on the results, either Pearson or Spearman correlations were applied. Homoscedasticity was assessed using Levene’s test across different categorical variables (e.g., gender, age, contract type). In most cases, non-significant results supported the homogeneity of variances.
Additionally, for regression analyses, the assumptions of multicollinearity and homoscedasticity were tested. Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) were below 5, indicating no problematic multicollinearity, while residuals analysis confirmed homoscedasticity. Statistical significance was set at p < .05.
Ethics
This study adhered to established ethical principles for research involving human participants. All teachers provided informed consent prior to participation. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents retained the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.
The research followed the ethical standards set forth in the Declaration of Helsinki and the Singapore Statement on Research Integrity, with a primary focus on safeguarding the integrity, privacy, and rights of participants. Confidentiality and anonymity of both teachers and schools were guaranteed, and no identifying information was disclosed in the study.
The project did not undergo formal review by an institutional ethics committee. This decision is justified by the nature of the study: a non-interventional, questionnaire-based survey with full anonymity and minimal risk to participants. Nevertheless, the procedures implemented ensured compliance with international ethical frameworks and reinforced the integrity of the research process.
Results
Table 2 below presents the means for the general constructs and their respective dimensions. These measurements allow for an evaluation of the aspects analysed in this study.
Table 2
Means of the dimensions of Well-being, Burnout and Engagement.
| MEAN | MIN | MAX | VARIANCE | S.D. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Burnout | 1.77 | .09 | 5.14 | .624 | .78 |
| Emotional exhaustion | 2.47 | .00 | 6.00 | 1.36 | 1.16 |
| Depersonalisation | .78 | .00 | 4.20 | .59 | .77 |
| Personal fulfilment | 4.38 | 1.25 | 5.88 | .78 | .88 |
| Engagement | 4.31 | .00 | 6.00 | 1.17 | 1.08 |
| Vigour | 3.79 | .00 | 6.00 | 1.90 | 1.38 |
| Dedication | 4.86 | .00 | 6.00 | 1.26 | 1.12 |
| Absorption | 4.29 | .00 | 6.00 | 1.61 | 1,27 |
| Well-being | 3.52 | 1.14 | 3.79 | .45 | .67 |
| Infrastructural aspect | 3.26 | 1.00 | 5.00 | .93 | .96 |
| Work activity aspect | 3.45 | 1.00 | 5.00 | .76 | .87 |
| Socioeconomic aspect | 3.60 | 1.17 | 5.00 | .50 | .71 |
| Relational aspect | 3.56 | 1.25 | 5.00 | .62 | .78 |
Burnout
For dichotomous variables (gender, childbearing status), no significant differences were observed using the Mann-Whitney U test (p > 0.05). In categories with more than two groups, the ANOVA test revealed significant differences only by age group (p = .032), indicating that teachers over 55 years of age had lower levels of burnout than younger teachers.
The Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences in burnout based on the grade level taught, the size of the school, and the type of teaching (Table 3). The post hoc analysis revealed that:
Table 3
Main Burnout comparisons by category.
| CATEGORY | TEST | p value | SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | Mann-Whitney | .403 | No |
| Parenthood | Mann-Whitney | .756 | No |
| Age | ANOVA | .032 | Yes (People over 55 years of age with less burnout) |
| Degree taught | Kruskal-Wallis | .005 | Yes (Primary vs Both) |
| School size | Kruskal-Wallis | .033 | Yes (small vs very large) |
| Grade taught at the school | Kruskal-Wallis | .008 | Yes (only primary vs only secondary) |
Primary school teachers have lower levels of burnout than those who teach at both levels.
Those who work in very large establishments show greater burnout compared to small or medium-sized ones.
Teachers in secondary schools have significantly higher levels of burnout.
Dimension: Emotional Exhaustion
No significant differences were found in dichotomous variables or in most categories. Only age showed significant differences (p = .003). The over-55 age group reported lower levels of emotional exhaustion (Table 4).
Dimension: Depersonalisation
A significant gender difference was observed, with men reporting higher levels of depersonalization (p < .001). Differences were also found based on the grade level taught and the type of instruction offered. Elementary school teachers reported lower levels of depersonalization compared to those teaching in secondary schools or both levels (Table 5).
Table 5
Main comparisons of Depersonalization by category.
| CATEGORY | TEST | p value | SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | Mann-Whitney | <.001 | Yes (women < men) |
| Degree taught | Kruskal-Wallis | .008 | Yes (primary < secondary/both) |
| Grade taught at the school | Kruskal-Wallis | .012 | Yes (primary < secondary) |
| Other variables | Kruskal-Wallis | >.05 | No |
Dimension: Personal Fulfilment
In this dimension, no significant differences were observed in most categories, except for the grade level taught by the teacher (p = .042). Those who teach only elementary education report higher levels of personal fulfilment compared to those who teach at both levels (Table 6).
Engagement in teachers
For engagement, the dichotomous categories did not show significant differences in their means (Mann-Whitney U test). However, as shown in Table 7, significant differences were observed in variables such as age, grade level taught, and years teaching (Kruskal-Wallis test). It is noteworthy that teachers over 55 years of age, those teaching elementary school, and those with more experience showed significantly higher levels of engagement.
Vigour
In vigour, no differences were observed by gender or having children (U test). Significant differences were found in age, years of teaching, and institutional vulnerability indices. Higher levels were noted among teachers over 55 years of age, with more years of experience, and in institutions with greater vulnerability (Table 8).
Dedication
Dedication shows no significant differences in dichotomous variables (gender, having children). Only years of teaching show significant differences, with experienced teachers showing greater dedication (Table 9).
Absorption
There are no differences in absorption by gender or having children. Significant differences are observed in age, years of teaching, and institution size, as seen in Table 10. Teachers over 55 and with more experience show higher levels, while those working in larger institutions have lower absorption levels.
Well-being in teachers
The analysis of teachers’ general well-being shows no statistically significant differences in the dichotomous categories of gender or parenthood. Likewise, the age variable did not present significant differences between groups (p = .312). However, when applying the Kruskal-Wallis test to variables with more than two groups, significant differences were identified in the following categories: grade taught by the teacher, size of the school, type of instruction, and vulnerability index (Table 11). Teachers who teach elementary education, who work in small institutions, who work in schools exclusively offering elementary education, and those in less vulnerable contexts report higher levels of well-being.
Table 11
Main Comparisons of Teacher Well-Being by Category.
| CATEGORY | STATISTIC | p | DECISION | TEST USED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | U = 4553.0 | .403 | Conserve H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Parenthood | U = 5373.5 | .960 | Conserve H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Age | F = 1.200 | .312 | Conserve H₀ | ANOVA |
| Degree taught | H = 23.111 | <.001 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| School size | H = 19.546 | <.001 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Grade taught at the school | H = 20.396 | <.001 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Vulnerability Index (SVI) | H = 10.174 | .006 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
The Post hoc findings showed that:
Elementary school teachers show greater well-being than those who teach secondary school or both levels.
Greater well-being is associated with small institutions.
Schools that only offer primary education outperform those that offer secondary education in terms of well-being.
Greater vulnerability of the establishment is associated with lower well-being.
Infrastructural Aspect
No significant differences were detected by gender or parenthood. However, the Kruskal-Wallis model reveals differences by grade level taught, years of experience, institution size, and type of teaching (Table 12). Elementary school teachers, with more experience, working in small, exclusively elementary schools, report greater satisfaction with the infrastructure.
Table 12
Main Findings in the Infrastructural Aspect by Category.
| CATEGORY | STATISTIC | p | DECISION | TEST USED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | U = 5359.0 | .285 | Conserve H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Parenthood | U = 5739.5 | .436 | Conserve H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Degree taught | H = 6.890 | .032 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Years of experience | H = 6.642 | .036 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| School size | H = 9.466 | .024 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Grade taught at the school | H = 12.223 | .002 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
Work activity aspect
Significant differences were identified by gender (U = 5728.0, p = .049), with greater satisfaction among women. Differences were also found in age, grade level, size, and type of teaching according to the Kruskal-Wallis model (Table 13). Older teachers, who teach elementary education in small, exclusively elementary schools, report greater job satisfaction.
Table 13
Main Findings in the Work Activity Aspect by Category.
| CATEGORY | STATISTIC | p | DECISION | TEST USED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | U = 5728.0 | .049 | Reject H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Parenthood | U = 5086.0 | .478 | Conserve H₀ | Mann-Whitney U |
| Age | H = 12.301 | .015 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Degree taught | H = 14.488 | <.001 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| School size | H = 11.215 | .011 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Grade taught at the school | H = 9.952 | .007 | Reject H₀ | Kruskal-Wallis |
Socioeconomic aspect
The socioeconomic aspect analysis shows no significant differences by gender or having children. However, statistically significant differences were identified in the grade level taught by the teacher, school size, type of instruction, and school vulnerability index (Table 14).
Table 14
Main Findings in the Socioeconomic Aspect by Category.
| CATEGORY | STATISTIC | SIG. | DECISION | TEST USED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Degree taught | 16.690 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| School size | 12.623 | .006 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Grade taught at the school | 14.814 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Vulnerability Index (SVI) | 11.413 | .003 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
Teachers who teach exclusively in elementary schools, in small schools, or in highly vulnerable schools report higher levels of satisfaction in this dimension. In contrast, those who work exclusively in secondary schools or in large institutions report lower satisfaction.
Relational Aspect
Regarding the relational aspect, significant differences were found by gender, with women reporting the highest satisfaction. As shown in Table 15, significant differences were also observed in the grade level taught, school size, type of instruction, and vulnerability index.
Table 15
Main Findings in the Relational Aspect by Category.
| CATEGORY | STATISTIC | SIG. | DECISION | TEST USED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | 6131.0 | .004 | Reject null hypothesis | Mann-Whitney U |
| Degree taught | 27.589 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| School size | 24.270 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Grade taught at the school | 22.828 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
| Vulnerability Index (SVI) | 18.807 | <.001 | Reject null hypothesis | Kruskal-Wallis |
Teachers working in elementary education, small schools, or schools with high vulnerability report the highest relational satisfaction. In contrast, the lowest levels are observed among secondary school teachers and teachers in large or very large schools.
Correlation
To correlate the well-being factors that may influence burnout or engagement, a normality test was first performed (Table 16). Since the variables did not meet the normality assumption required for the Pearson correlation, the Spearman correlation was used to identify the level of correlation between the different factors.
Table 16
Spearman Correlation Among the Different Variables.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Burnout | 1.000 | |||||||
| 2 | Emotional exhaustion | .884** | 1.000 | ||||||
| 3 | Depersonalisation | .664** | .476** | 1.000 | |||||
| 4 | Personal fulfilment | –.743** | –.423** | –.404** | 1.000 | ||||
| 5 | Engagement | –.682** | –.524** | –.367** | .681** | 1.000 | |||
| 6 | Vigour | –.739** | –.615** | –.392** | .687** | .886** | 1.000 | ||
| 7 | Dedication | –.657** | –.520** | –.413** | .608** | .880** | .752** | 1.000 | |
| 8 | Absorption | –.368** | –.213** | –.180** | .464** | .800** | .505** | .589** | 1.000 |
| 9 | Well-being | –.581** | –.488** | –.386** | .487** | .564** | .578** | .484** | .372** |
| 10 | Infra-structural aspect | –.288** | –.277** | –.185** | .187** | .272** | .284** | .218** | .192** |
| 11 | Work activity aspect | –.576** | –.500** | –.337** | .500** | .537** | .574** | .475** | .325** |
| 12 | Socioeconomic aspect | –.548** | –.447** | –.363** | .475** | .535** | .530** | .473** | .369** |
| 13 | Relational aspect | –.494** | –.393** | –.357** | .424** | .513** | .507** | .435** | .352** |
Impact of Teacher Well-being Constructs on Burnout and Engagement
Multiple linear regressions were performed to analyse which aspects of objective well-being significantly predict the dimensions of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment) and engagement (vigour, dedication, absorption) in teachers (Table 17). The independent variables considered were socioeconomic factors, work activity, age, gender, years of experience, and the School Vulnerability Index (SVI).
Table 17
Multiple Linear Regressions with Burnout and Engagement Constructs as Independent Variables.
| DIMENSION | PREDICTOR VARIABLES | STANDARDISED BETA | p | ADJUSTED R2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emotional exhaustion | Work activity aspect | –0.301 | <.001 | |
| Socioeconomic aspect | –0.301 | <.001 | 0.317 | |
| Age | –0.137 | 0.014 | ||
| Socioeconomic aspect | –0.220 | 0.004 | ||
| Depersonalisation | Gender | –0.174 | 0.005 | 0.164 |
| Work activity aspect | –0.175 | 0.021 | ||
| Work activity aspect | 0.305 | <.001 | ||
| Personal fulfilment | Socioeconomic aspect | 0.259 | <.001 | 0.277 |
| Years of experience | 0.138 | 0.016 | ||
| Work activity aspect | 0.355 | <.001 | ||
| Vigour | Socioeconomic aspect | 0.299 | <.001 | 0.428 |
| Age | 0.240 | <.001 | ||
| Socioeconomic aspect | 0.355 | <.001 | ||
| Dedication | Work activity aspect | 0.253 | <.001 | 0.297 |
| Vulnerability Index (SVI) | –0.119 | 0.037 | ||
| Age | 0.113 | 0.045 | ||
| Absorption | Socioeconomic aspect | 0.347 | <.001 | 0.148 |
| Years of experience | 0.149 | 0.017 |
The results show that socioeconomic factors and work activity have a significant impact on almost all the dimensions studied. Age and years of experience also have moderate effects on some dimensions. In the absorption dimension, only the socioeconomic factor was a significant predictor. Overall, constructs related to socioeconomic and occupational well-being are the main predictors of both burnout and teacher engagement.
Discussion
The results obtained show consistency with previous research, showing that levels of depersonalization are significantly higher in men, while no significant differences in engagement by gender were detected, as reported by Rey et al. (2012). Likewise, high levels of engagement were observed in primary school teachers, in line with similar findings in the literature. Our findings align with prior studies, such as Faskhodi & Siyyari (2018), showing that older teachers report greater engagement and reduced burnout. This study contributes by demonstrating similar dynamics in Chile’s southern educational context, emphasising the role of structural vulnerability in shaping these outcomes.
The analyses revealed that educators in secondary education tend to experience comparatively greater burnout symptoms and lower engagement than those teaching at the primary level. This phenomenon may be related to the higher incidence of challenging behaviours and lack of discipline in older students, increasing teacher stress, as pointed out by Shirom et al. (2015) and Fernet et al. (2012). The loss of control in the classroom and the difficulties in managing these behaviours negatively affect teachers’ well-being and motivation, coinciding with what was described by Jacobson (2016). Accordingly, regression analyses highlight the relevance of socioeconomic and work activity factors as significant predictors of burnout and engagement, suggesting that the working conditions of elementary school teachers could be more favourable.
Regarding institutional performance, the data do not show a direct relationship with burnout levels, a finding expected and supported by Rionda-Arjona & Mares-Cárdenas (2012). The higher levels of burnout among young and secondary school teachers are also consistent with previous studies (Moriana & Herruzo, 2004; Jepson & Forrest, 2006), although the reduction in burnout with age observed here supports Faskhodi & Siyyari (2018)’s model and is attributed to better stress responses among experienced teachers (Moreira Lema, 2012).
On the other hand, it is notable that teachers at small educational institutions report higher levels of well-being compared to those at large institutions, possibly due to greater social support and a better organisational climate in smaller settings, as suggested by Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2009).
These associations can be interpreted through motivational frameworks. Maslow’s hierarchy situates social and professional recognition within fundamental human needs, while the JD-R model clarifies how access to resources buffers stress and enhances engagement. Together, these theories contextualise the regression findings. Several recent studies have shown the association between levels of burnout and engagement in the workplace, reaffirming the ideas of these models (Guzmán-Arellano et al., 2024b).
Finally, the findings from the multiple linear regressions confirm that socioeconomic and work-related factors — linked to available job resources — are significant predictors of burnout and engagement. This aligns with Bakker et al. (2014)’s model of job demands and resources, where the availability of job resources contributes to reducing burnout and increasing engagement. Thus, objective well-being can be considered a key component for designing institutional interventions aimed at improving teachers’ occupational health and strengthening professional commitment.
In short, the demographic and contextual variables analysed complement our understanding of the factors that affect burnout and engagement, providing valuable information for future intervention strategies in the educational field.
This study makes a unique contribution to the literature on teacher well-being in Latin America by empirically linking objective well-being dimensions — particularly socioeconomic and work-related aspects — to burnout and engagement outcomes. While previous studies have emphasised individual or psychological factors, our findings demonstrate that structural conditions embedded in schools (e.g., socioeconomic vulnerability, work-related activity, institutional size) are significant predictors of teachers’ occupational health. This expands the Job Demands–Resources framework by reinforcing the importance of context-specific, institutional variables in understanding and improving teachers’ occupational health.
Furthermore, the inclusion of the SVI as a contextual determinant provides novel evidence on how structural disadvantage relates to teachers’ dedication and burnout. To our knowledge, this is among the first studies in southern Chile to operationalise vulnerability at the institutional level as a predictor of teacher well-being, engagement, and burnout.
By demonstrating that socioeconomic vulnerability, institutional size, and teaching level are significant predictors of burnout and engagement, this study provides a foundation for evidence-based policies aimed at strengthening occupational health in schools. Practical implications include the design of institutional programs to support early-career teachers, targeted strategies for secondary-level educators, and initiatives to reduce stressors in large schools with high vulnerability indices. Implementing such strategies can also improve teacher retention and strengthen engagement. Future research should expand this line of inquiry by conducting longitudinal and multi-regional studies, incorporating additional structural indicators, and testing the effectiveness of institutional interventions. By integrating these perspectives, the field can develop a more comprehensive understanding of teacher well-being, one that not only values psychological resources but also acknowledges the systemic conditions that enable or constrain teachers’ professional flourishing.
Conclusions
The results obtained from the sample indicate that teachers present intermediate levels of burnout, with emotional exhaustion in the medium-high range, low depersonalization, and medium-low personal accomplishment, reflecting a moderate perception of burnout and job satisfaction. In contrast, engagement is at medium to high levels, with dedication and absorption particularly notable, suggesting significant commitment to teaching tasks.
The analysis of teacher well-being reveals a generally neutral perception, with moderate satisfaction in the socioeconomic and relational aspects, and lower satisfaction in the infrastructural aspect, associated with the work environment and available resources. Differences between groups show that secondary school teachers experience higher levels of burnout and lower well-being, particularly in larger institutions, while men present higher levels of depersonalization. Furthermore, younger teachers report lower engagement than their older and more experienced peers, underscoring the need to focus retention and motivation strategies on this group.
It was observed that teaching experience positively correlates with vigour, dedication, and absorption, while institutions with lower social vulnerability have lower scores in vigour and absorption, demonstrating the influence of the institutional context on work engagement. Well-being is reduced among secondary school teachers and teachers in large schools, factors that appear to influence perceptions of the work and social environment.
The results suggest the importance of implementing specific interventions for entry-level and young teachers to reduce turnover and improve retention. They also highlight the need to address the specific conditions of teachers in secondary schools and large institutions to improve their well-being and reduce associated stress. The moderate link between objective well-being and the dimensions of burnout and engagement, corroborated by multiple regression analysis, emphasises that strengthening socioeconomic factors and job performance can be key to promoting greater commitment and less burnout among teachers.
Overall, the study underscores the need for institutional strategies that integrate demographic and contextual realities, aiming not only to enhance teachers’ well-being but also to secure broader improvements in educational outcomes.
Data Accessibility Statement
The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to institutional restrictions, but can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics And Consent
This research was conducted following the ethical statements proposed in the Helsinki and Singapore declarations related to research in humans by using informed consent, confidentiality, and the corresponding processes explicated in the Methodology section.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the participating schools and teachers for their valuable collaboration. We also acknowledge the support of colleagues from the Department of Industrial Engineering at the University of Concepción for their constructive feedback during the development of this research.
Competing Interests
The author has no competing interests to declare.