Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Summary of reviewed studies
| Study number | Author | Intervention | Instrument | Duration |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Azhdar et al. 44 | EI | N-back | Pre-Post |
| 2 | Bae et al. 38 | EI+CT+SI | SST/ VSST | Pre-Post |
| 3 | Carretti et al. 22 | CT | FDS/ BDS/ CWMS/ DMT | Pre-Post |
| 4 | Chan et al. 36 | Writing | BDS | Pre-Post-6 month Follow up |
| 5 | Chobe et al. 43 | Yoga+AR | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 6 | Damirchi et al. 35 | EI+ ME | FDS | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 7 | Dannhauser et al. 26 | EI+CT+SI | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post(1)-post(2) |
| 8 | Donnezan et al. 33 | CT+EI | FDS | Pre-Post |
| 9 | Dossantos et al. 42 | RT | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 10 | Emsaki et al. 40 | MEST | WMS-III | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 11 | Fin & McDonald 27 | CT | SST | Pre-Post |
| 12 | Flak et al. 31 | CT | SST | Pre-Post-4 month Follow up |
| 13 | Gharabaghi et al. 45 | EI | n-back | Pre-Post |
| 14 | Giuli et al. 37 | CT | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 15 | Gonzalez et al. 32 | CT | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 16 | Herrera et al. 34 | CT | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post-6 month Follow up |
| 17 | Li et al. 23 | EI | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 18 | Lin et al. 28 | VSOP | N-back | Pre-Post |
| 19 | Moro et al. 39 | Metacognition | LST | Pre-Post-6 month Follow up |
| 20 | Schaham et al. 21 | TECH | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 21 | Vermeij et al. 30 | CT | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 22 | Weng et al. 29 | CT | FDS/ BDS/ DST/ ST | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 23 | Yang et al. 25 | VIMT | BDS | Pre-Post-3 month Follow up |
| 24 | Yoon et al. 41 | EI | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 25 | You et al. 47 | CCS | FDS/ BDS/ n-back | Pre-Post |
| 26 | Yu et al. 46 | MBI | FDS/ BDS | Pre-Post |
| 27 | Zare et al. 24 | CT | RST | Pre-Post |
Mean differences and effect sizes determined for the studies
| Study | Mean difference | Effect size |
|---|---|---|
| Carretti et al. 22 | 0.40 | 0.34 |
| Chan et al. 36 | 0.30 | 0.31 |
| Giuli et al. 37 | 0.64 | 0.78 |
| Herrera et al. 34 | 0.36 | 1.77 |
| Li et al. 23 | 0.38 | 0.28 |
| Weng et al. 29 | 0.21 | 0.22 |
| Yang et al. 25 | 2.09 | 0.8 |
Classification of studies by intervention type
| Intervention | Reference Number | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Digital-based | 25 | 23 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 21 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 |
| Group based | 22 | 36 | 26 | 37 | 38 | ||||||||
| Teaching strategy | 37 | 39 | 40 | ||||||||||
| Exercise intervention | 41 | 23 | 26 | 38 | 42 | 43 | 26 | 24 | 44 | 35 | 45 | ||
| Mindfulness-based | 46 | ||||||||||||
| Socializing intervention | 23 | 38 | |||||||||||
| Dietary regimens | 47 | 43 | |||||||||||
Sample characteristics
| Variable | Treatment group | Control group | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 71.37 ± 5.05 | 72.6 ± 5.04 | 71.98 ± 5.45 |
| Number of participants in each group | 26.43 ± 21.69 | 26.36 ± 23.33 | 26.39 ± 22.51 |
| Mental status at baseline | MMSE: 27.15 ± 2.23 | MMSE: 27.07 ± 2.14 | MMSE: 27.09 ± 2.19 |
| MOCA: 22.23 ± 2.61 | MOCA: 24.14 ± 3.22 | MOCA: 23.03 ± 2.89 |
Fixed and random effects sizes after sensitivity analysis adjustment
| Model | No. of effect size | Effect size | Standard error | 95% confidence interval | Z score | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low | High | ||||||
| Fixed | 6 | 0.432 | 0.084 | 0.268 | 0.596 | 4.942 | 0.000 |
| Random | 6 | 0.456 | 0.103 | 0.237 | 0.676 | 4.229 | 0.000 |