Evaluating Adaptive Peacebuilding Through Developmental Evaluation: Lessons on Cohesion and Inclusion from Fragile Somali Districts

Introduction

This practice note presents the findings of a Developmental Evaluation (DE) of the Peace Reconciliation Activity (PRA) implemented by Catholic Relief Services (CRS) across four conflict-affected districts in Somalia. This note first looks at the aims of the project, then at the results of our evaluation. It explores how adaptive peacebuilding, guided by Developmental Evaluation principles, contributed to measurable shifts in cohesion and inclusion, emphasizing that evaluation is not a post-hoc exercise but rather a learning process that needs to take place alongside the process of implementation.

The Peace Reconciliation Activity

Somalia’s sociopolitical environment remains deeply fragile, shaped by protracted conflict, displacement, environmental shocks, and fractured governance. The PRA was implemented from 2022 to 2024 in Barawe, Afgoye, Jowhar, and Warsheikh, districts long affected by these problems, and at a time when inter-clan violence, land competition, and weakened civic institutions had eroded local trust. It aimed to advance peace, inclusion, and social cohesion through a locally led and trauma-informed methodology. Its objectives were to rebuild social ties across clans, enhance empathy and negotiation capacity, and expand inclusive civic platforms. By focusing on community-led learning, it sought to transform entrenched attitudes toward coexistence, empowering participants to become active agents of reconciliation.

The PRA was built on CRS’s 3B/4D framework. The 3Bs are Bonding (strengthening intra-group solidarity), Binding (addressing personal and collective trauma), and Bridging (fostering inter-group empathy and collaboration). This is coupled with the Discover, Dream, Design, and Deliver stages adopted from Appreciative Inquiry methodology, which facilitates visioning and co-creation among diverse participants (Cooperrider and Whitney, 2005). This integrated model provided a structured yet adaptive pathway for communities to process trauma, envision peaceful coexistence, and co-create solutions. The PRA intervention ensured intersectional inclusion by ensuring that youth, women, elders, persons with disabilities, and internally displaced persons participated in designing and monitoring peace actions, reinforcing inclusivity and ownership. The PRA’s design responded to the erosion of traditional mediation mechanisms and the exclusion of marginalized groups from governance. It aimed to restore trust through participatory reconciliation forums, trauma-healing initiatives, peaceful masculinities activities for young men, and inclusive livelihood cooperation.

Peace in fragile states depends on more than institutional arrangements: it requires psychological recovery, adaptive learning, and inclusive social infrastructure. Prolonged exposure to violence and displacement has psychological and relational consequences that undermine peacebuilding (Hammond, 2013; True, 2020). Research by Betancourt et al. (2013), True (2020), and OECD (2019) show that gendered expectations of masculinity in fragile and conflict-affected settings shape conflict and peacebuilding dynamics, and that engaging men and boys can foster empathy, reduce violence, and support more inclusive social relations. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee’s (IASC) 2007 guidelines emphasize psychosocial care as a prerequisite for reconciliation. Integrating trauma healing into civic life helps participants reframe identity narratives from victimhood to agency, reinforcing resilience and belonging.

Social cohesion, defined by trust, belonging, and cooperation, is also vital for recovery in post-conflict societies (Putnam, 2000). Somalia’s clan-based divisions illustrate how bonding capital can reinforce internal solidarity while hindering cross-clan collaboration. Studies emphasize that inclusive civic dialogue strengthens both vertical and horizontal trust (vertical trust being between leaders and community members, and horizontal trust between peers) (OECD, 2021; Saferworld, 2021). Within Somalia’s fragmented context, bonding networks often sustain immediate survival, but bridging relationships determine prospects for lasting peace. Evidence suggests that youth and women often act as bridging agents due to their flexible trust networks (Elmi et al., 2023). However, persistent marginalization undermines their full participation in community governance and peace processes. Programs that create safe, inclusive spaces for dialogue are shown to enhance both bonding and bridging outcomes (Saferworld, 2021).

Transformation of gender relations was another critical outcome. A central innovation of the PRA was the Peaceful Masculinities Component, which encouraged men and boys to adopt non-violent, empathetic, and collaborative behaviors. Through community dialogues, peer-to-peer mentorship, and youth leadership clubs, male participants reflected on gender norms, practised positive role modeling, and contributed to safer, more respectful community relations. Football tournaments, drama, and cultural events provided non-confrontational spaces for cross-clan interaction and redefined masculinity around care, cooperation, and civic responsibility. These efforts complemented women’s leadership initiatives, ensuring that gender role transformation was relational rather than unilateral. This cultural shift reduced gender-based tensions and encouraged men to act as allies in promoting respectful, equitable relationships. However, sustaining it will require continued investment in positive male role models and institutional support for gender equality.

The PRA also established and provided capacity-building to community-level Natural Resource Management (NRM) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) committees to address disputes over governance of water points, use of fallow and grazing land, farmland allocation, and forest resource management. It revitalized district-level hybrid peace platforms by connecting elders, women leaders, and officials in order to mediate grievances. These mechanisms improved accountability and fostered transparent conflict resolution, particularly for vulnerable farmers and displaced groups.

By linking peacebuilding to livelihoods, transformation of gender relations, and inclusive governance, the PRA moved beyond dialogue to tangible social change. Community participants collectively identified connector projects, such as water-management schemes and market-rehabilitation initiatives, that reduced competition over scarce resources and strengthened shared ownership, interdependence, and long-term stability.

The findings laid out in this Practice Note form part of the September 2024 Pivot Assessment, the project’s bi- annual outcome progress review mechanism. I worked on this as the Deputy Chief of Party Developmental Evaluator and reviewed program performance, outcomes, and emerging results that could be attributed to the project intervention. The aim was to capture learning and document the emergent and evidence-based adaptive changes adopted throughout implementation to see if further changes were needed. This study contributes empirical evidence from Somalia on how Developmental Evaluation operationalized these principles, translating adaptive learning into locally owned peace outcomes. While numerous peacebuilding programs exist, few have integrated real-time evaluation frameworks to explore the relationship between trauma, social cohesion, and inclusion in such fluid settings. Traditional evaluations measure outcomes retrospectively, missing real-time adaptations essential in fragile environments. The PRA addressed this gap by embedding a Developmental Evaluation (DE) framework from inception to ensure continuous reflection and adaptive learning, linking evidence directly to decision-making in the field. DE, introduced by Patton (2011), suits non-linear, evolving processes like peacebuilding, where change is iterative (de Coning, 2018; Gamble, 2008). It also embeds evaluators within program teams to enable learning through action. By positioning evaluators as facilitators rather than auditors, DE transforms evaluation into a collective learning mechanism that enhances responsiveness to complex social realities. Field-based studies have demonstrated how DE has supported programming in contexts like South Sudan and Syria by embedding evaluators within implementation teams to facilitate course correction and stakeholder engagement (CRS, 2022).

Developmental Evaluation

Findings

This section presents the evaluation’s major findings. The results are organized thematically across trust and social capital, inclusion, grievance redress, empathy, resilience, and access to livelihoods and services.

Inclusion and social belonging

Perceptions of inclusion in mixed social spaces increased from 25% to 33%. Youth (44%) and women (43%) reported stronger belonging than men (39%) or older adults (39%), indicating that younger and female participants felt more welcome in diverse settings (see Table 2).

Table 2

Respondents Feeling Welcomed in Mixed Communities.

DESCRIPTION	MALE	FEMALE	15–29 YEARS	30+ YEARS	OVERALL
% Feeling Welcomed	39	43	44	39	33

[i] Source: Author’s field survey data.

Community dialogue, Peaceful Masculinities activities, and cultural events, such as football tournaments, theatre, and music, helped normalize cooperation between clans and provided safe, non-political spaces for interaction among men, women, and youth from different identity groups. These activities encouraged minority-clan members to participate more confidently in community life and attend public gatherings, such as weddings hosted by majority clans. By combining sports, art, and reflection on gender norms, the PRA fostered empathy, social inclusion, and a shared sense of belonging across clan lines (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Grievance Redress and Conflict Resolution

District-level hybrid peace platforms and village-level NRM and DRR committees helped prevent and mediate disputes over land, water, and grazing access. Grievance reporting reached 62% across districts, and 77% of those cases were resolved, representing a 37-percentage-point increase compared with the prior year. These inclusive mechanisms allowed diverse clan representatives to address resource-related grievances collectively (see Figure 2). These peace platforms improved grievance-resolution rates, but participation remained uneven. Men (57%) and adults (65%) had higher resolution rates than women (43%) and youth (35%) (see Table 3). The latter still faced barriers linked to social stigma and limited decision-making authority. Addressing these asymmetries requires embedding gender-responsive mechanisms and youth-inclusive representation within local governance structures.

Table 3

Grievance Resolution by Demographics.

DESCRIPTION	MALE	FEMALE	15–29 YEARS	30+ YEARS	OVERALL
% Resolved	57	43	35	65	77

[i] Source: Author’s field survey data.

Figure 2

Empathy, Trust, and Resilience

Overall average scores for mutual trust, empathy, and resilient social ties increased from 2.6 to 3.7 on a five-point Likert scale (see Figure 1). Youth and women demonstrated the greatest improvement, owing to consistent participation in trauma-healing circles and peer-led dialogues (see Figure 3). This underscores the transformative power of trauma-informed engagement. Healing circles and psychosocial dialogues not only mitigated the emotional impact of conflict but also redefined community narratives around forgiveness, belonging, and collective identity.

Figure 3

Access to Livelihoods and Basic Services

Inclusive livelihood initiatives emerged as powerful connectors across clans. Cooperative agriculture, market linkages, and Savings and Internal Lending Communities (SILC) reduced competition over resources and replaced suspicion with collaboration. SILCs increased household financial confidence and promoted inclusion. Shared livelihood activities, such as joint irrigation repairs and small enterprise training, brought together members of different clans, transforming economic collaboration into trust-building opportunities. Economic interdependence thus became both a peace dividend and a foundation for long-term resilience.

Access to basic services improved from 2.0 to 3.0 on a four-point scale, moving from “limited” to “moderate” access. Women, youth, and persons with disabilities experienced the largest gains, especially in health, education, and security services. In addition, the PRA integrated vocational skills training for youth boys and girls, as well as adult men and women, to enhance employability, diversify income opportunities, and strengthen local market participation. These training programs, covering trades such as tailoring, carpentry, mechanics, and small business management, expanded economic inclusion and built community resilience by reducing dependence on humanitarian aid. The combination of improved service access and vocational skills development reinforced participants’ confidence, self-reliance, and ability to contribute productively to peacebuilding processes (see Figure 4 & Table 4).

Table 4

Key Indicator Progress Over 12 Months.

INDICATOR	12 MONTHS BEFORE	CURRENT	CHANGE
Social Capital Index	52%	58%	+6%
Inclusion in Mixed Communities	25%	33%	+8%
Grievances Resolved	40%	77%	+37%
Trust & Empathy (avg. score)	2.6	3.7	+1.1
Access to Services & Livelihoods	2.0	3.0	+1.0

[i] Source: Author’s Field Survey Data.

Figure 4

Conclusions

We can summarise the lessons learned about the impact of the PRA through the DE process as follows. Bridging ties require intentional design and cross-clan trust develops only when deliberately cultivated through inclusive platforms and shared projects. True inclusion requires psychological safety and belonging. Healing enables cohesion: trauma-sensitive facilitation strengthens empathy and resilience. Trauma-informed practices should be used to integrate psychosocial healing into governance, justice, and development systems. In addition, community mechanisms are most effective when accessible and inclusive: hybrid peace committees must include women, youth, and people with disabilities in leadership roles, representing their own interests and views. Gender equity in particular needs role models and so transformative masculinity initiatives should highlight local champions. Livelihoods are also peace catalysts as joint economic ventures anchor reconciliation in tangible benefits. Such inclusive livelihood models need to be scaled up, by expanding SILC and cooperative enterprises that link economic security to reconciliation. Beyond that, sustainability requires systems thinking, which requires concern for local institutions and their future performance. Embedding DE practices within district governance structures ensures continuity.

The PRA demonstrates how DE can transform peacebuilding from a static, output-driven project into a responsive and dynamic learning system. DE can operationalize adaptive peacebuilding by embedding learning within action. Real-time feedback loops, trauma-informed facilitation, and inclusive livelihoods collectively strengthened social cohesion and trust among diverse clans. DE is not merely a monitoring approach but a participatory framework for adaptive peacebuilding. By integrating real-time data, reflection, and learning into implementation, the PRA helped local actors navigate uncertainty, transform relationships, and embed inclusion within peace processes. Continuous feedback loops allowed program teams and communities to adapt and innovate interventions in real time in complex environments. Embedding DE from the outset enabled implementers and community members to co-produce solutions through regular reflection and joint analysis. Adjustments, such as revising grievance-redress forums, introducing women mediators, and reconfiguring youth dialogues, emerged directly from participatory learning rather than top-down directives. These iterative adaptations ensured that the PRA remained relevant to local realities and capable of responding to shifting conflict dynamics.

Our experience suggests that donors and and agencies should embed DE approaches in all peacebuilding cycles to ensure flexibility and responsiveness. Further studies should examine how DE-driven learning sustains long-term peace outcomes and how gender and age shape bridging capital over time. Peace in fragile contexts is not a one-time achievement but an evolving process of collective learning. When communities are equipped to analyze and adapt through evidence and empathy, reconciliation becomes not only possible but enduring. The Somali experience illustrates how locally grounded evidence, when translated through iterative learning, can inform broader strategies for sustainable and systemic peace.