Introduction: Society and the Games
From 9–16 September 2023, the sixth Invictus Games (IG 23), a major international sporting event for active and former soldiers with physical and mental disabilities, took place in Germany. Through their participation in IG 23, competitors, family and friends, volunteers and the public demonstrated their commitment to giving visibility to disabled or ill soldiers and to enabling them to continue to be individuals capable of action and physical performance. Training for the games and the experience of the competitions themselves are an important part of the rehabilitation process of those affected. The German Federal Ministry of Defence (Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, or BMVg) had intensively supported the bid to bring the Invictus Games to Germany and was involved in the planning and organization of the event through a substantial project team. The organizers wanted both to raise awareness of the participants and to promulgate the idea of the Invictus Games themselves as the “Games of the Unconquered”.1
Research into sport, the military and society in Germany has been overlooked in recent years; Elbe & Reichherzer’s recent volume of 2023 is a notable addition to a comparatively thin field. Internationally, however, the topic has seen much discussion (Desjardins, 2024; Butterworth, 2017; Penn & Berridge, 2018; Vasquez, 2012). In regard to major sports events and the military, Mittag and Wu (2023) provide an overview of the development of transnational events. They point out that the Invictus Games have constituted an expansion in the field of transnational sporting events in connection with the military. It has become clear that these meetings in the context of the military are not only events by and for the armed forces but attempts to improve the condition of civil-military relations.
To analyse this in depth, the Invictus games of 2023 in Germany are to be taken as an empirical basis. For this event, a legacy concept was approved by the mayor of the host city of Düsseldorf and the Parliamentary State Secretary in the BMVg. It was agreed that the Centre for Military History and Social Sciences of the Bundeswehr (Zentrum für Militärgeschichte und Sozialwissenschaften der Bundeswehr, or ZMSBw) would provide support in evaluating the Games.
The concept aims to realise the material legacy of the Games in two ways. First, the successor organization of the next Games and the Invictus Games Foundation should be founded on evaluation results forming a basis for recommendations comparable to the report by Deloitte (2018); second, the sustainability of the Invictus Games as a major sporting event in a regional and national context should be promoted. The empirical survey further provides a basis for analysing the relationship between society, sport and the military. One aim was to specifically survey the perceptions and assessments of the games and the people affected from a cross section of society, with a focus on veterans. This was carried out as part of the ZMSBw’s annual representative population survey. Finally, it was the intention to specifically assess the motivation and experience of people involved (e.g., the volunteers as a distinct group within civic engagement).
This study’s empirical approach focuses on the influence of the 2023 Games on civil-military relations in Germany. A representative population survey aims to capture the phenomenon in its breadth, while a thorough analysis will be conducted through the survey of the volunteers.
The article’s principal research question is “How have the Invictus Games 2023 influenced civil-military relations in Germany?” Further context and specificity are provided by studies conducted by the ZMSBw, with empirical data and observed relationships affording additional insight. The more detailed research questions answered below are:
What does the German population think about the Invictus Games 2023 and former soldiers (veterans)?
How do volunteers perceive the games, what motivates them, and what are their basic attitudes to sport and health?
The section following explains the theoretical foundations of the relationship between society, sport and the military in Germany. Here, the connection between sports and the military is introduced before the Invictus movement and the Invictus Games, as a major military sports event, are presented. This is embedded in the discussion about the significance of veterans in society; finally, volunteers are addressed as another link between the Invictus Games and society. The third section describes the methodological challenges of the evaluation project for IG 23. The fourth section presents the key results from the two empirical projects. The final section discusses the results and offers conclusions.
Military Sport and Society in Germany
Sport and the Military
From a sociological perspective, sport and the military, as specific contributions to socialization, instantiate differentiation in contemporary society (Cachay & Thiel, 2000). The military, with its physical demands, engages in (often deadly) combat using armed force, while sporting socialization is geared towards civilian competition using peaceful means serving the development of health – for the individual, the organization, and society as a whole (Elbe, 2023; Elbe et al., 2011; Elbe 2020). But these two different social sub-systems have, however, become intertwined on several levels, even leading to claims of the militarization of sport (Klie, 2019; Butterworth, 2017; Kelly, 2016; Fischer, 2014; Jenkins, 2013; Kelly, 2013; Virchow, 2005). With regard to IG 23 in Düsseldorf, criticism of the Games and their financing was also voiced in parts of the press and the political establishment (Schubert, 2023).
Sporting and military competition are frequently assumed to share similarities (Elias & Dunning, 1983; Campbell, 2000; Bredekamp, 2001) dating from antiquity (Tauber, 2019). Spears are thrown to this day; firearms are shot; certain equestrian sports and competitive skiing sports derive directly from military tradition. We reference military terms when we speak of “attack”, “storming”, “defence”, or “captains” (Reichherzer & Elbe, 2023; Kelly, 2016). Today, sport constitutes both an important source of meaning and an opportunity to participate in social life for broad sections of the population – sports clubs and sporting events, for example. While sport facilitates entertainment, integration, health and self-fulfilment in civilian society, in the military it is first and foremost a means to improve the soldier’s performance (see, for example, Desjardins, 2024, 2020). Competitions, including international world championships as part of CISM, the World Federation of Military Sports (Klein & Lützkendorf, 2023), play a visible role in military contexts. In addition, elite sport and the promotion of elite sport in the military acts as a task assigned to society as a whole and serves to enhance the image of the armed forces.2
Invictus Movement and Invictus Games
The different aspects of the military, elite sport and disabled sport come together in the Invictus movement. In Germany, sport for disabled people was developed as part as the wider historical national gymnastics and sports movement (Bahro, 2019), while the development of war-disabled sport dates to the First World War. In Britain, the Stoke Mandeville Games 1948 were the first public competitions for war-disabled athletes, which became the forerunner of the Paralympic Games and the Special Olympics World Games (Brittain & Green, 2012; International Paralympic Committee, n.d.). With the Invictus Games, founded in 2014 by Prince Harry, the Duke of Sussex, another major sporting event was added to the competition formats of disability sports. Now the Invictus Games Foundation explicitly seeks to reintegrate mentally and physically injured and otherwise ill soldiers back into society (Bahro, 2019), helping them to participate in life again. This is achieved both through goal-oriented training in preparation for the competitions and through participation in the competitions themselves.
A recent analysis of the effects of the Invictus Games on the health and well-being of military personnel and veterans with physical and mental impairments both highlights the value of competitive sport for the rehabilitation of those affected and points out the need to maintain the programme after the Games (Shirazipour et al., n.d.). But there are also critical voices: for Cree and Caddick (2019), the veteran competitions represent “cyborg bodies” and elite athletes, who contribute to a performance of the posthuman body with their prosthetics and wheelchairs. This sceptical perspective seems to play a significant role in the criticism of the Invictus Games alongside the accusation of militarization (Butterworth, 2017; Fischer, 2017).
In Germany, the rehab training in preparation for the Invictus Games and the final selection of participants is carried out by the Centre for Sports Medicine of the German Armed Forces in Warendorf (Lison & Lützkendorf, 2023). In addition, the relatives of the competitors also experience the recovery process, and the rehabilitation phase by regaining participation in the Games. In general, the Invictus Games should also “create a better understanding and respect in society for all people who are in the service of their country” (BMVg, 2023). It should be noted that the IG 23 closely followed the Special Olympics World Games, held in Berlin the previous June. This can be considered to have had a significant impact on the interest in inclusion sport in society.
Veterans as a link between the military and society
There are only few studies on the Invictus Games (Klein & Lützkendorf, 2023; Cree & Caddick, 2019; Schubmann, 2020; Shirazipour et al., n.d.). A connection to the current military sociological discussion can be found in the research on veterans, addressing an important aspect of civil-military relations (Ben-Shalom et al., 2023; Yttereng, 2023; Leonhard, 2022; Bulmer & Jackson, 2016; Thompson et al., 2016; Burdett et al., 2012; Camacho, 2007). The revival of the concept of “veteran” has reignited various debates concerning the gap between the civilian population and the military, public opinion about veterans in Germany, and both the militarization of sport and the extent to which events such as the Invictus Games can bridge this gap.
Leonhard (2022) sets the theoretical framework of the concept of the veteran as a social figure by applying several perspectives to the construct: the soldier’s body, the role of the military as a gendered organization, the social integration of those returning from deployment, the state’s obligations to the veteran for the services they have performed, the forms and processes of managing such obligations and entitlements, the debate about military values and military violence. The veteran can thus be understood as a social figure that provides a historicizing social reference to meaning. Regardless of the definition, when we speak of the social figure of the veteran, we refer to characteristics derived from a person’s past but bearing significance for the present. The designation of “veteran” both contemporizes a specific past and imbues it with meaning (Leonhard, 2022).
In Germany, there arose a need to regulate which of those returning from deployment should actually be called a veteran: “A veteran of the Bundeswehr is someone who is on active duty as a soldier in the Bundeswehr or who has honourably discharged from this service, i.e., has not lost his or her rank” (von der Leyen, 2018). This official definition is broad, including both those who have simply served and those who have returned from deployment wounded or ill.
Differences in perception and experience for both veterans and civil society (and in particular their families) justify speaking of the veteran as an independent social figure, however. Veterans embody an important connecting element between society and the military in significantly highlighting the integration of the military into the civilian world. This is certainly true for the athletes at the Invictus Games; regardless of whether they are active soldiers or veterans, we may generally expect those involved to be in the process of transitioning between military and civilian professional status. The possibilities of support for veterans in the long term in overcoming the challenges of the transition to civil life has been intensively discussed in military studies (Elbe, 2024; Pedersen & Wieser, 2021; Shue, 2021; Shepherd et al., 2021; Cathart, 2019; Elbe, 2019; Zogas, 2017).
Volunteers as link between the Invictus Games and society
Another aspect of civil-military relations in the context of the Invictus Games lies in the involvement of volunteers for the games as a form of civic engagement (Simonson et al., 2017). The basic criteria of volunteering, an act not geared towards material gain, is that it takes place in public spaces and usually in a community setting, is oriented towards the common good and is – of course – performed without compulsion. This applies to economic and reproductive activities, voting in elections, forms of religious and cultural expression, sport, and socializing in (large-scale) events. As the German Volunteering Survey 2022 shows, sport has the highest measured engagement rate, with belonging and participation as key drivers of engagement (Braun et al., 2022). It can be assumed that due to the exit options for volunteers, similar to those for active participants and spectators, there exists a rather asymmetrical inclusion relationship in favour of volunteers (Schimank & Schöneck, 2006).3
Only few studies on volunteers in special sporting events and military sporting events have been conducted (Schlesinger & Gubler, 2016; Twynam et al., 2002; Ye et al., 2022). One exception is a study on the Military World Games in Wuhan 2019 (Ye et al., 2022). According to this study, volunteers constitute a “soft” infrastructure playing a decisive role in the success of major sporting events. However, the authors use patriotism and “love of the military” as central constructs for their study, concluding that motivation may be expressed in values, patriotism and commitment, interpersonal contacts, personal growth, love of sport, and affinity for the military, and that they have a positive effect on volunteer satisfaction (Ye et al., 2022).
IG 23, as a link between the military, sport and society with a focus on the inclusion of service people with injuries and illnesses, also relies on the work of volunteers. Kelly (2016) identifies the fact that injured soldiers become athletes and participate in public sporting events such as the Invictus Games or the American Warrior Games as an indication of the connection between sport and society. As a sporting event, IG 23 can be seen as an example of inclusion and diversity – something also reflected in the selection of volunteers by the project team, who explicitly sought volunteers of all ages, genders, and backgrounds.4 The Invictus Games are therefore a complex and comprehensive mode of connecting several social subsystems encompassing various social groups: participants and coaches, organizing team and volunteers, spectators in the stadium and in the media, and people local to the event. The ultimate goal is inclusion, not only of those affected, but of all the games’ participants (Schimank & Schöneck, 2006).
The connection between the military, sport and society in Germany has thus been expanded to include another field: rehabilitative sport in the military (Mittag & Wu, 2023) and its contribution to the integration of veterans into society.
Overall, it can be stated that there is a gap in empirical research regarding the role of the Invictus Games for civil-military relations. This study aims to fill them through two empirical sub-studies.
Methodological Questions
The legacy concept for IG 23 in Düsseldorf provided social science support for the Games at an early stage. This ministerial mandate from the BMVg was implemented through two research projects by the ZMSBw.5
The first part of the study comprised independent data collection from those directly involved in IG 23: the competitors, their companions (family and friends), the volunteers (who kept the games running), and both civilian and military spectators. Although there was close interaction between military personnel and civilian participants and interested parties, the focus here was on the idea of inclusion and the recognition of the achievements of competitors affected by physical and mental stress or limitations, rather than patriotism or militarism. This required an adaptation of the instruments used by Ye et al. (2022).
The participants were offered standardized, closed questionnaires in German and English as part of an online survey. The goal was to send the questionnaire to all participants in Düsseldorf. The questionnaire comprised six parts, with the second differentiating between the four participant groups using a filter question. For all participants, a total of 130 characteristics were collected in 22 question blocks. Two blocks of questions with a total of 25 individual characteristics were redesigned to reflect the groups of characteristics identified in the national strategy for major sporting events (BMI/DOSB, 2021).6 In addition, volunteers completed a shortened German version of the Volunteer Functions Inventory, or VFI (Oostlander et al., 2014; original English version by Clary et al., 1998).7 The other questions were either newly developed or corresponded to question formats used as standard in ZMSBw surveys.
Reviewing the evaluation data, it became clear that the response rates for the different participant groups (competitors, family and friends, volunteers and the public) varied greatly.8 Only the volunteers had an adequate response rate at 34%, meaning that representative statements can only be made for this group. The organizing team was able to provide the email addresses for the group of volunteers, so a complete evaluation was carried out for this group. The basic population of volunteers amounted to approx. 1,200 people, of whom a sample of 1,020 existing e-mail addresses could be collected. The response was 349 completed questionnaires, which corresponds to a response rate of 34%. The data collection took place online during and after IG 23 from 9–24 September, 2023. A research report in the form of a presentation was submitted to the BMVg and the project team at the end of November 2023 as one aspect of the overall evaluation-report to the Invictus Games Foundation.
As a second sub-study, additional questions were included in the population survey conducted annually by the ZMSBw to analyse the relationship between the Bundeswehr and society with regard to veterans, in particular, and more generally to sport and the military. The ZMSBw population survey, the longest-running and most comprehensive series of security and defence policy surveys in Germany, has existed since 1996. It is always been conducted as a quantitative survey using a standardized questionnaire (CAPI). The data from the ZMSBw Population Survey 2023 was collected from 19–23 July, 2023. 2,211 randomly selected citizens were surveyed. The interviews lasted an average of 57 minutes and the exhaustion rate was 53%. Participation is generally voluntary, anonymous, and unremunerated (Graf, 2023). Two question blocks with a total of nineteen characteristics were integrated into the population survey questionnaire in the years 2021, 2022 and 2023.
Table 1 provides an overview of the methodological principles of the two surveys. The results of both surveys are presented below.
Table 1
Overview of Both Surveys.
| RESEARCH QUESTIONS | HOW DO THE PARTICIPANTS EXPERIENCE AND EVALUATE THE INVICTUS GAMES 2023 | HOW DOES SOCIETY RATE SUPPORT MEASURES FOR VETERANS, SPORT AND THE MILITARY IN GERMANY |
|---|---|---|
| Who |
|
|
| Date | During and after IG 23 | Before the IG 23 |
| Scope | Full survey of volunteers | Representative sample |
| Goal | Legacy Report Reanalysis research | Part of the ZMSBw’s annual population surveys |
| Design | Quantitative online survey with standardized questionnaire | Quantitative survey with standardized questionnaire (CAPI) |
| Results | Presentation of results 2023 | Research report (Graf, 2023) |
[i] Note. Information on research projects at the ZMSBw with reference to IG 23.
Results
Assessment by the German Population
In the 2023 population survey, 79% of Germans rated the relationship between the Bundeswehr and society positively and perceived the Bundeswehr to be an entirely normal part of society. 78% were of the opinion that the Bundeswehr represents values central to German society. 60% of respondents were familiar with the term veteran (Graf, 2023, p. 45). When asked what measures could be taken to show social appreciation and provide practical support to veterans, over 80% of respondents were in favour of support for veterans who had suffered physical or psychological damage during service, including lifelong social security and special medical care. 70% and more favour honouring veterans on Armed Forces Day and special care services for veterans’ families. As many as 65% of respondents are in favour of major sporting events to make veterans visible. Figure 1 shows all approval ratings for support measures for veterans in comparison for a three-year period.
Figure 1
Approval of Support Measures.
Note. Figures in percent. The response percentages “Agree completely” and “Agree somewhat” were combined (n = 1.122). Items sorted in descending order for the year 2023. Data derived from ZMSBw population survey, 2021, 2022 and 2023.
The eleven support measures surveyed are rather stable over a three-year period and can be summarized into four theoretically based groups of measures. Measure group 1 (approval x > 80%) consists of two items: social security for life for veterans who have suffered physical and psychological harm in the service, and special medical care; these measures were considered particularly important by the population in 2023. Measure group 2 (approval 79 > x > 70%) comprises four items: an Armed Forces Day on which veterans are also honoured; special care services for the families of veterans; inviting veterans to public events with a symbolic character; and discounts for leisure activities (e.g., with a veterans card). These present a wide range of other measures also considered important by the population. Measure group 3 (approval 69 > x > 60%) includes four items: major sporting events to make wounded veterans more visible to the public; government funding for private initiatives to support soldiers (e.g., Solidarity with Soldiers, Yellow Ribbon); the public awarding of veterans’ badges, decorations or medals; a Veterans Day on which veterans are honoured. Measure group 4 (approval x < 59%) has only a single item: a postage stamp with the motto “Solidarity with our soldiers”.9 While this tends to be supported, it enjoys the lowest approved measure among the population.
The aspect of major sporting events for veterans also includes IG 23 as an international sporting event for injured service personnel. With regard to the Invictus Games, 50% of respondents stated that IG 23 was important as an international sporting event for injured servicewomen and men, 23% were divided in their opinion, and 12% classified the games as unimportant. In addition, the 2023 population survey asked about eight aspects of sport in the Bundeswehr, which can again be summarized in four theoretically based groups:
Group 1 (three items): Physical fitness is of particular importance for soldiers; it is an important part of everyday service; sport is considered very important for the rehabilitation of injured and wounded soldiers.
Group 2 (one item): Sport for the rehabilitation of injured and wounded soldiers is very important to the respondents.
Group 3 (two items): The achievements of sports soldiers in elite sport are seen as important for Germany; public sporting events for injured soldiers promote their social recognition.
Group 4 (two items): International military sporting events are rated positively; the IG 23 as an international sporting event for disabled soldiers is rated positively.
With regard to IG 23, 32% stated that they had noticed reporting and advertising. Among these, the approval rating for the Invictus Games was 76% (Graf, 2023, p. 49).
At the time of the survey, two to three months before IG 23 took place in Düsseldorf, the majority of the population believed veterans and their families to deserve special recognition – yet, at this point, only a third of the population had been informed about the Games through advertising and reporting in the media. This is also reflected in the approval ratings for major sporting events for injured servicewomen and men, such as the Invictus Games. The majority of the population had a positive attitude towards military sport and the Bundeswehr in general.
Volunteers’ Perspective
Volunteers and their motives for participating in IG 23
From a demographic perspective, the volunteers at IG 23 can be characterized as follows. A majority (56%) were women, and half over the age of 50. Nearly three fifths (59%) held a university degree, and an additional 21% had completed some higher education. Most volunteers (61%) were married or in a stable partnership. Regarding citizenship, 69% held German citizenship alone, 6% dual citizenship including German, and 15% were without German citizenship, having at least one foreign citizenship. The primary motives for volunteering with IG 23 were, first, the need for veterans to be recognized; second, aspects of self-understanding and understanding others; third, social considerations; and fourth, career-oriented factors.
With regard to their motivations for participation, 4 factors can be extracted from 15 individual characteristics of the abridged VFI using a factor analysis: recognition, understanding, social aspects, and career orientation. These were decisive for the volunteers in their application. These factors and associated characteristics are listed below.
Recognition10 (five characteristics) includes experiencing oneself as important, increased self-esteem, being needed, feeling better, reduction of feelings of guilt towards others (Cronbach’s α = 0.86).
Understanding11 (four characteristics) includes the desire to meet new people, to be able to learn new things about volunteering, to learn how to deal with people and to get to know one’s own strengths (Cronbach’s α = 0.79).
Social aspects:12 Friends are also engaged voluntarily, the environment finds this important, acquaintances share the interest, I am concerned about the disadvantaged (Cronbach’s α = 0.76).
Career orientation13 (two characteristics): being able to make new professional contacts and to try out different career options (Cronbach’s α = 0.77).
Assessment of the IG 23 as a major sporting event by the respondents
To assess IG 23, the volunteers were asked how much they enjoyed the event overall. Volunteers rate IG 23 very positively as a major sporting event (Ma = 1.56).14 Figure 2 shows the distribution with regard to the question “Overall, how much did you like the Invictus Games in Düsseldorf 2023?” This is assessed as a statement about satisfaction with the event.
Figure 2
Overall Assessment of IG 23.
Note. Figures in the diagram in percent. Volunteers only n = 345. Data basis: ZMSBw Evaluation IG 23 (2023).
Individual characteristics were collected to describe the Invictus Games as a major sporting event and were analysed as factors influencing satisfaction. Due to the interrelatedness of the content, 13 influencing factors were formed from 40 individual characteristics, the formulation of which was theory-based, especially on the indicators of the German National Strategy for Major Sporting Events (BMI/DOSB, 2021, p. 61ff). The extent to which the factors exhibit adequate reliability will be checked using Cronbach’s α.15
Accessibility: The competitions were easily accessible and reasonably free from physical barriers (Cronbach’s α = 0.33).
Integration: Integration was good at IG 23, even if there could have been greater involvement from the local population (Cronbach’s α = 0.62).
Identification: With regard to IG 23, the volunteers’ awareness of their own sporting activities was only partially strengthened – but respondents learned about new sports and their identification with the competitors was strengthened (Cronbach’s α = 0.64).
Volunteering: The volunteers rate themselves as very important for the success of the event and as very friendly and helpful (Cronbach’s α = 0.40).
Internationalization: The competitions brought people from different countries together and thus promoted intercultural exchange (Cronbach’s α = 0.77).
Target group experience: IG 23 created highlights for different target groups and offered an unforgettable experience. Overall, the social cohesion of the participants was strengthened (Cronbach’s α = 0.73).
Location effects: While IG 23 was a tourist attraction and made Germany visible in its diversity, the Games did not greatly effect the economic environment or culture, science or education (Cronbach’s α = 0.85).
Sustainability: While the reduction of environmental impact was not a priority for the organizers, the existing sports infrastructure was very well used and designed to meet demand (Cronbach’s α = 0.59).
Information: The Team Respect Area (information area on rehabilitation and sport) was rated as interesting, and advertising for IG 23 was also noticed (Cronbach’s α = 0.49).
Sports facilities: The competition venues were rated positively overall, with the distances to be covered also rated rather positively, although the availability and cleanliness of the toilets were rated as mediocre (Cronbach’s α = 0.49).
Course of the event: The visibility of the competitors was high, the time structure of the competitions was good, the flow of visitors was well managed, the comprehensibility of information or announcements during the event was still good. Overall, the organization of IG 23 was rated as rather mediocre (Cronbach’s α = 0.75).
Everyday experience: The experience of camaraderie and community was rated positively by the volunteers, but the duration of the working days, the catering and the overall care of the volunteers were only experienced as rather mediocre (Cronbach’s α = 0.77).
Event preparation: Advance information was also rated as rather mediocre, as were training courses and publicity surrounding the event (Cronbach’s α = 0.69).
Based on the reliability analysis, 9 of the original 13 factors were selected for testing in a regression model with regard to their influence on satisfaction with the IG 23 (Table 2).
Table 2
Factors Influencing Satisfaction with the IG 23.
| FACTOR | EFFECT SIZE (beta) | SIGNIFICANCE (sig.) |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | –0.035 | n.s. |
| Age | 0.026 | n.s. |
| Identification | 0.193 | *** |
| Integration | 0.237 | *** |
| Internationalization | 0.720 | n.s. |
| Target group experience | 0.110 | n.s. |
| Location effects | –0.069 | n.s. |
| Sustainability | 0.106 | n.s. |
| Course of the event | 0.221 | ** |
| Everyday experience | 0.166 | * |
| Event preparation | –0.109 | n.s. |
[i] Note. Volunteers only n = 345. Adjusted R2 = 0.51. n.s. = not significant. Significances: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. Data basis: ZMSBw Evaluation IG 23 (2023). Dependent variable: “Overall, how much did you enjoy the Invictus Games in Düsseldorf 2023?”.
After the reliability analysis (Cronbach’s requirement α > 0.50) and subsequent regression analysis, four main influencing factors (adjusted R2 = 0.59) were identified, relating to how well the volunteers enjoyed the Invictus Games in Düsseldorf 2023 overall and how satisfied they were with the event:
Identification with the sport and the competitors
Extent of integration
Course of the event
Personal, everyday experience during the event
Obviously, the volunteers’ satisfaction with the Invictus Games is particularly shaped by inclusion effects (identification and participation) and the experiential nature of the event (event process and everyday experience). Volunteers help to mould the event by assuming various positions – accompanying the competitors, supporting family and friends, looking after spectators. Specifically, this means that the greater the identification with sport and the competitors, the better the integration within the framework of IG 23 and in the population. Further, the better IG 23 was rated, and the more positive the volunteers’ everyday experience was during it, the more satisfied the volunteers were with the event. Clear factors influencing the volunteers’ satisfaction with the IG 23 were therefore identified.
The importance of sport for volunteers
In general, the volunteers were interested in sport and were active in sport themselves.16 Sport enables them to do something for their own health. The respondents stated that their circle of acquaintances shared their interest in sport and that they look after people who do sport with them. While the absolute majority of volunteers were of the opinion that sport always has an impact on both mind and body, only some of those surveyed believed that sport should always serve to improve physical performance. Generally speaking, sport was very important in the lives of volunteers.
Regarding the relationship between sport and the military, the volunteers considered physical fitness to be particularly important for soldiers and viewed sport as an integral part of daily military life. Although only 48% of respondents believed that the armed forces offered a wide range of sporting activities, a majority thought that civilian personnel should also be encouraged to participate. The volunteers regarded sport as essential for the rehabilitation of sick or injured soldiers and believed that public sporting events for these individuals enhanced their social recognition. They also viewed the military as making an important contribution to competitive sport by supporting elite athletes. Furthermore, they attributed a preventive health function to general fitness activities within the armed forces.
Finally, the interviewees believed that international military sporting events foster cooperation and cultural understanding. Overall, they tended to agree that the military and sport “somehow” belong together (Figure 3).
Figure 3
Sport and the Military from the Volunteers’ Perspective.
Note. Figures in percent. Volunteers only n = 326–329. Data basis: ZMSBw Evaluation IG 23 (2023). Question wording: “Below you will find a series of general statements about sport in the military. How much do you agree with them?” The response percentages “Completely agree” and “Agree somewhat” have been combined.
With regard to sport as rehabilitation, the volunteers believed sport to be important for the rehabilitation of sick or injured people (79%) and that it contributed to the regaining of physical condition (99%).17 According to the volunteers, sport can also help people with post-traumatic stress disorder cope better with everyday life (97%). Sporting events for people with disabilities are a celebration for everyone involved (91%), and it is impressive to see the level of performance that people with disabilities achieve in competition (97%), according to the respondents. Both physical and psychological factors have an important influence on the sustainability of rehabilitation sport (98%), although the transition to competitive sport was only considered relevant by a small number (38%). In general, sport as rehabilitation helps people to regain their courage and experience themselves as powerful.
The statements on sport and the military in general and on the importance of sport in the context of rehabilitation show that both aspects were regarded as important. Both were significant for the respondents in the context of the public.
Perpetuation of the Invictus Movement in Germany
Following IG 23, an Invictus Germany association was founded under the patronage of the host city of Düsseldorf. With the aim of perpetuating the Invictus movement in Germany, the association seeks to maintain dialogue about sport, rehabilitation and veterans in society and to initiate more sporting events echoing the event’s format (D.Live, 2024). Against this backdrop, and in recognition of its commitment to staging the Games, the Federal Ministry of Defense (BMVg) awarded the Invictus Games Foundation the Bundeswehr and Society prize in 2023.
The evaluation of IG 23 was supported by social science monitoring. The key results of this are presented in this article. In society as a whole, there is now not only a Veterans Day and a Veterans Badge intended to honour all veterans. The Invictus Games have also increased the visibility of combat veterans and other injured soldiers, and as has been shown, both the Bundeswehr and the social figure of the veteran enjoy a high level of approval and recognition in Germany. IG 23 has made an independent contribution to the recognition of the special achievements of mentally and physically impaired active and former soldiers in Germany.
Discussion and Conclusion
The analysis of the Invictus Games as an attempt to positively influence the relationship between military and society shows that the German Armed Forces are considered both important and a natural part of society. Specifically, the comparatively recent adoption of the understanding of soldiers as veterans in Germany received a high level of recognition. The Invictus Games were also supported. The significance of the connection between sport and military is clearly recognized by the public in terms of sport as service, rehabilitation, and competition. Sports in the military, in all its facets, thus promotes the integration of the Bundeswehr into society. This goes even beyond sports: veterans and their families, it is believed, should receive special recognition and also be publicly visible.
Although the expansion of the military beyond its core duties – notably the defence of nation and allies – through the transfer of tasks in sports to the military is often criticized as a form of covert militarization and a measure to (unfairly) improve the popular acceptance of the military (Klie, 2019; Butterworth, 2017; Kelly, 2016; Fischer, 2014; Jenkins, 2013; Kelly, 2013; Virchow, 2005), this hardly applies to the Invictus Games, neither in the context of voluntary work nor in the population. As shown in this article, the Invictus Games not only positively contribute to the transition of veterans into civilian life, they promote support for wounded, injured, and ill soldiers and veterans.
This questions Kelly’s (2016) point that disabled soldiers becoming athletes and participating in public sporting events indicates a connection between sport and militarism. As the data presented here show, IG 23, as a sporting event, can be seen, rather, as an example of inclusion and diversity. While it is difficult to offer any fundamental statement regarding the militarization of sports through military sports events on the basis of the analysis conducted here, it is possible to conclude, at least, that further aspects – discussion of veterans and the integration of the injured and disabled into society, for example – need to be taken into account. From a military sociological perspective, linking an analysis of the Invictus Games to the veteran discourse is helpful to adequately assess the phenomenon’s impact on civil-military relations.
The contribution made by volunteers to the execution of large military sports events such as the Invictus Games offers insight into the significance of such events for civil-military relations. This goes beyond a basic recognition of veterans and the military. Here, a specific individual commitment is necessary to enable the organization of large sports events, in general, and, specifically, to support the concerns of veterans in relation to the Invictus Games. The main motivators for participating as volunteers at IG 23 were the need for recognition, aspects of understanding oneself and others, social factors, and characteristics of career orientation. This corresponds with the motives found at the Military World Games in Wuhan 2019 (Ye et al., 2022; Mittag & Wu, 2023) – although without the aspect of patriotism.
The volunteers’ satisfaction with IG 23 was shaped primarily by factors of inclusion – specifically identification and participation – and by the experiential quality of the event, including its organization and the volunteers’ day-to-day experiences. Satisfaction increased with stronger identification with the sport and its competitors, greater perceived integration within IG 23 and the wider community, and more positive evaluations of both the event’s course and the volunteers’ daily experiences. Together, these factors contributed to the perception of IG 23 as a successful major sporting event.
From a methodological point of view, it should be noted that integrating questions regarding veterans and major military sports events in the context of the representative population survey conducted by the ZMSBw for analysing civil-military relations has proven itself.
The questionnaire for the evaluation of IG 23 marked the first time a comprehensive quantitative instrument for evaluating major sporting events was employed in line with the national strategy for major sporting events (BMI/DOSB 2021). The questionnaire, which evaluated itself in its own last pages, reflects a wide range of research interests, and its effectivity in the context of Volunteer Legacy at major sporting events (Wise et al. 2021; Doherty 2009) should be noted. However, there were issues with data collection from athletes, support staff, and spectators, showing that reaching these groups is best organized by integrating direct access to them into the task list of volunteers during their training and during the games.
This article has addressed how society in Germany evaluates support measures for veterans and the relationship between sport and the military. It has also examined the volunteers’ motives for participating in IG 23, their assessments of IG 23 as a major sporting event, and their general attitudes toward sport and health.
It is obvious that the connection between the military, sports, and society has many facets (e.g., service sports, health sports, rehabilitation sports, elite sports). In particular, rehabilitation sports and the Invictus Games represent an important link for the recognition of veterans by society. Although the expansion of the military’s tasks beyond its core functions is often criticized as covert militarization and as an unjustified measure to increase public acceptance, this hardly applies to the Invictus Games, neither in the context of voluntary work nor among the general population. The Invictus Games not only contribute to the transition from service to civil life; they foster support for the wounded, injured and sick servicemen and veterans, thus improving civil-military relations.
Notes
[3] The term invictus (unconquered) was popularized in a poem by William Ernest Henley (1849–1903), in which he addressed the illness of bone tuberculosis, the amputation of a leg and his subsequent convalescence. Tom Fiedler quotes the poem, ubiquitous at the Invictus Games, as a prelude to his graphic novel, which narrates the rehabilitation process as part of the Invictus movement (Fiedler, 2023). Former chief physician and retired colonel Rainer Schubmann, who accompanied the German competitors to the 2016 Invictus Games in Orlando as team doctor, also describes the comprehensive rehabilitation process and recites Henley’s poem (Schubmann, 2020).
[4] The Bundeswehr is thus implementing a mandate issued by the German Bundestag in 1968 as the institution with the largest scope of funding for top-class sport. With 938 posts and 15 sports support groups, it promotes high-performance sport in Germany (Bundeswehr, 2024). At the Olympic Games in Paris, sports soldiers were involved in 20 of the 33 medals (61%) won by the German team (Streitkräfteamt der Bundeswehr Dezernat Sport, 2024). Since 2013, this has also included the promotion of elite Paralympic sport – a framework agreement has been in place with the German Disabled Sports Association.
[5] For sports clubs, voluntary participation and the exit option are modelled by Schlesinger & Nagel (2011) in the form of a subjective evaluation of the cost-benefit ratios of possible alternatives.
[6] People who wanted to volunteer were able to register via a registration portal until 31 October, 2022. The selection and allocation to the individual areas of work took place by August 2023. Two training sessions were held immediately before the start of the Games on 9 September, 2023, one for German-speaking volunteers and one for international volunteers (D.Sports, 2022). The IG 23 were not only aimed at competitors and their social environment (family & friends), but also at volunteers, spectators, the residents of the city of Düsseldorf, where the games took place, and wider society in Germany via media.
[7] Empirical research on the military in Germany is conducted almost exclusively by the Centre for Military History and Social Sciences of the Bundeswehr (ZMSBw) due to widespread university policy to refuse commissioned research for the military. The ZMSBw is evaluated by the German Science Council and accompanied by a scientific advisory board. The freedom of science is guaranteed, and both the research process and the interpretation of the results are free from extra scientific influences. The data used were collected directly by the author in one sub-project and in the other sub-project by IPSOS (a large internationally active research institute) according to the specifications of the ZMSBw. Here the author was involved in the process of designing the questions and interpreting the data.
[8] The two subsequent blocks of questions in part two of the questionnaire were visible with different content for the target groups (competitors, family and friends, spectators and volunteers). A group-specific battery of questions was designed to assess IG 23 as a major sporting event. In the online survey, the participants only received the questions they were asked to answer directly, but not those intended for other participant groups. The remaining parts of the questionnaire applied to all participants.
[9] Although the VFI was a starting point for the survey by Ye et al. (2022) as well, it was partly altered in their study.
[10] To collect the data, the e-mail addresses of the competitors and family & friends were to be reported via the team leaders of the nations. The basic population consisted of approx. 1,500 athletes and accompanying persons. However, only 91 e-mail addresses were reported by the team leaders of the countries. The response rate of 23 completed questionnaires cannot be meaningfully evaluated on a group-specific basis. A similar problem arose for the group of spectators. As the organizing team was unable to provide email addresses, an alternative approach was implemented via the volunteers. With a basic population of around 140,000 spectators, a response rate of 68 completed questionnaires was ultimately recorded; again, no meaningful results can be derived from this for the group of spectators.
[12] Recognition (Honeth, 2010) addresses the experience of both social visibility and respect, thereby clarifying the norms of interactive social practice.
[13] The theory of understanding (Elbe, 2022) addresses the understanding of others and the self (as a changing and learning individual), and the understanding of the (social) environment.
[14] See Wise et al. (2021) regarding sport volunteering, educational leadership, and social transformation.
[15] Regarding theory on careers, see Gunz and Mayrhofer (2018).
[16] The value range for the arithmetic mean Ma [1, …, 5] includes characteristic values from “very good” (1) to “very poor” (6).
[17] Although different evaluation levels for Cronbach’s α are postulated, Guide and Ketokivi (2015, p. vi) note that the criteria must depend on the context. However, there is certainly agreement that values below 0.5 are considered unacceptable. For this reason, only factors with Cronbach’s α values below 0.5 are excluded here.
[18] For the specific percentages in this section, see Figure 3.
Competing Interests
The author has no competing interests to declare.