Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Carbon sequestration mechanisms and performance evolution of alkali-activated slag during the mixing process Cover

Carbon sequestration mechanisms and performance evolution of alkali-activated slag during the mixing process

Open Access
|Oct 2026

References

  1. Lippiatt, N., Ling, T.-C., Pan, S.-Y., Towards carbon-neutral construction materials: Carbonation of cement-based materials and the future perspective, J. Build. Eng., 2020, 28: 101062. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101062
  2. Andrew, R. M., Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928–2018, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 2019, 11(4): 1675–1710. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1675-2019
  3. Supriya, Chaudhury, R., Sharma, U., Thapliyal, P.C., Singh, L.P., Low-CO2 emission strategies to achieve net zero target in cement sector, J. Clean. Prod., 2023, 417: 137466. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137466
  4. Wu, S., Shao, Z., Andrew, R. M., Bing, L., Wang, J., Niu, L., et al., Global CO2 uptake by cement materials accounts 1930–2023, Sci. Data, 2024, 11(1): 1409. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-04234-8
  5. Habert, G., Miller, S. A., John, V. M., Provis, J. L., Favier, A., Horvath, A., et al., Environmental impacts and decarbonization strategies in the cement and concrete industries, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 2020, 1(11): 559–573. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0093-3
  6. Han, S., Kim, J. H., Singh, R. K., & Shah, S. P., CO2 utilization for cementitious materials - A review, KSCE J. Civ. Eng., 2025, 29(4): 100227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kscej.2025.100227
  7. Al Salaheen, M., Alaloul, W. S., Alzubi, K. M., Malkawi, A. b. A., Musarat, M. A., Advancing waste-based construction materials through carbon dioxide curing: A comprehensive review, Results Eng., 2023, 20: 101591. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101591
  8. Charitha, V., Athira, G., Bahurudeen, A., Shekhar, S., Carbonation of alkali activated binders and comparison with the performance of ordinary Portland cement and blended cement binders, J. Build. Eng., 2022, 53: 104513. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104513
  9. Akturk, B., Abolfathi, M., Ulukaya, S., Kizilkanat, A. B., Hooper, T. J. N., Gu, L., et al., Hydration kinetics and performance of sodium carbonate-activated slag-based systems containing reactive MgO and metakaolin under carbonation, Cem. Concr. Compos., 2022, 132, 104617. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104617
  10. Provis, J.L., Palomo, A., Shi, C., Advances in understanding alkali-activated materials, Cem. Concr. Res., 2015, 78: 110–125. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.04.013
  11. Puertas, F., Palacios, M., Vázquez, T., Carbonation process of alkali-activated slag mortars [Article], J. Mater. Sci., 2006, 41(10): 3071–3082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-1821-2
  12. Davidovits, J., Geopolymers, J. Therm. Anal., 1991, 37(8): 1633–1656. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01912193
  13. Lu, G., Wang, K., Theoretical and experimental study on shear behavior of fresh mortar, Cem. Concr. Compos., 2011, 33(2): 319–327. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.09.002
  14. Tsai, C.-J., Wu, B.-W., Hua, C.-Y., Wu, Y.-H., Lin, W.-T., Influence of alkali equivalent and aggregate type on the volumetric behavior of alkali-activated slag mortar during plastic and hardened phases, Mater. Today Adv., 2026, 29: 100716. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2026.100716
  15. Zhang, X., Long, K., Liu, W., Li, L., Long, W.-J., Carbonation and Chloride Ions’ Penetration of Alkali-Activated Materials: A Review, Molecules, 2020, 25(21): 5074
  16. Bernal, S. A., de Gutierrez, R. M., Provis, J. L., Rose, V., Effect of silicate modulus and metakaolin incorporation on the carbonation of alkali silicate-activated slags, Cem. Concr. Res., 2010, 40(6): 898–907. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.02.003
  17. Lamaa, G. A.-O., Duarte, A. P. C., Silva, R. A.-O., de Brito, J. A.-O., Carbonation of Alkali-Activated Materials: A Review, Materials, 2023. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083086
  18. Jeon, D., Jun, Y., Jeong, Y., Oh, J. E., Microstructural and strength improvements through the use of Na2CO3 in a cementless Ca(OH)2-activated Class F fly ash system, Cem. Concr. Res., 2015, 67, 215–225. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.10.001
  19. Velandia, D. F., Lynsdale, C. J., Provis, J. L., Ramirez, F., Gomez, A. C., Evaluation of activated high volume fly ash systems using Na2SO4, lime and quicklime in mortars with high loss on ignition fly ashes, Constr. Build. Mater., 2016, 128: 248–255. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.076
  20. ASTM, I., ASTM C989/C989M-25: Standard specification for slag cement for use in concrete and mortars, West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2025
  21. ASTM, I., ASTM C109/C109M-21: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50 mm] Cube Specimens), West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2024
  22. ASTM, I., ASTM C642-21: Standard test method for density, absorption, and voids in hardened concrete, West Conshohocken, 104617, PA: ASTM International, 2022
  23. Hidalgo, A., Domingo, C., Garcia, C., Petit, S., Andrade, C., & Alonso, C., Microstructural changes induced in Portland cement-based materials due to natural and supercritical carbonation, J. Mater. Sci., 2008, 43(9): 3101–3111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-008-2521-5
  24. García-Lodeiro, I., Palomo, A., Fernández-Jiménez, A., An overview of the chemistry of alkali-activated cement-based materials, Cem. Concr. Res., 2011, 41(9): 923–931
  25. Provis, J. L., Alkali-activated materials, Cem. Concr. Res., 2018, 114: 40–48
  26. Li, J., Wu, S., Huang, Y., Li, Z., Li, J., Shi, Y., Carbonation performance and environmental assessment of alkali-activated slag-fly ash-steel slag mortars: precursor composition effects revealed by quantitative carbonate zoning, Environ. Res., 2026, 288: 123252. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.123252
  27. Bernal, S. A., Provis, J. L., Walkley, B., Gel nanostructure in alkali-activated materials, Cem. Concr. Res., 2011, 41(7): 711–720
  28. Provis, J.L., van Deventer, J.S.J, Alkali Activated Materials: State-of-the-Art Report, RILEM TC 224-AAM. Springer, 2014
  29. Popescu, M.-A., Isopescu, R., Matei, C., Fagarasan, G., Valentin, P., Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate polymorphs precipitated in the presence of ammonia and alkylamines, Adv. Powder Technol., 2014, 25: 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2013.08.003
  30. Adesina, A., Early-age in-situ chemical composition evolution of alkali-activated slag under different activator systems, Mater., 2026, 11: 101997. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxmate.2026.101997
  31. John, S. K., Nadir, Y., Girija, K., Effect of source materials, additives on the mechanical properties and durability of fly ash and fly ash-slag geopolymer mortar: A review, Constr. Build. Mater., 2021, 280: 122443. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122443
  32. Nguyen, T. N., Phung, Q. T., Frederickx, L., Jacques, D., Dauzeres, A., Elsen, J., et al., Microstructural evolution and its impact on the mechanical strength of typical alkali-activated slag subjected to accelerated carbonation, Dev. Built Environ., 2024, 19: 100519. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100519
  33. Ashraf, W., Carbonation of cement-based materials: Challenges and opportunities, Constr. Build. Mater., 2016, 120: 558–570. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.080
  34. He, P., Drissi, S., Hu, X., Liu, J., Shi, C., Investigation on the influential mechanism of FA and GGBS on the properties of CO2-cured cement paste, Cem. Concr. Compos., 2023, 142, 105186. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2023.105186
  35. Wu, C.-H., Hong, K.-S., Shih, P.-T., Cheng, T.-W., Lee, W.-H., Using GGBS/FA-based geopolymer on CO2 sequestration and its influence, Constr. Build. Mater., 2025, 494: 143519. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.143519
  36. Kim, J.-S., Youm, K. S., Lim, J.-H., Han, T.-S., Effect of carbonation on cement paste microstructure characterized by micro-computed tomography, Constr. Build. Mater., 2020, 263: 120079. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120079
  37. Hwalla, J., Al-Mazrouei, M., Al-Karbi, K., Al-Hebsi, A., Al-Ameri, M., Al-Hadrami, F., et al., Performance of alkali-activated slag concrete masonry blocks subjected to accelerated carbonation curing, Sustainability, 2023, 15(19): 14291. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914291
  38. Wang, S. Y., McCaslin, E., White, C. E. , Effects of magnesium content and carbonation on the multiscale pore structure of alkali-activated slags, Cem. Concr. Res., 2020, 130: 105979. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.105979
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/msp-2026-0016 | Journal eISSN: 2083-134X (formerly 2083-124X) | Journal ISSN: 2083-1331
Language: English
Page range: 63 - 78
Submitted on: Jul 22, 2026
Accepted on: Aug 13, 2026
Published on: Oct 16, 2026
Published by: Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2026 Chia-Jung Tsai, Chih-Wei Lu, Jun-Xiang Huang, Wen-Shinn Shyu, Jin-Chen Hsu, published by Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.