Figure 1
Configuration of plastic zones during extrusion of (a) circular, (b) square, (c) triangle, and (d) rectangle cross-sections.
Figure 2
Test stand schematic diagram.
Figure 3
Tool set for extrusion testing of model material (1 – container base, 2 – support plate, 3 – die, 4 – container, 5 – billet, 6 – embosser, and 7 – punch).
Figure 4
Extrusion test dies: (a) Circular die opening and (b) triangular die opening.
Figure 5
Extrusion test dies: (a) Square-shaped die opening and (b) rectangular die opening.
Table 1
Chemical composition of the material used in the study (Pb1) – weight%.
| Pb | Ag | As | Bi | Fe | Cu | Zn | Sb | Sn |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 99,98 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0100 | 0.0006 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 |
Table 2
Basic mechanical properties of the material used in the study (Pb1).
| Unit | ||
|---|---|---|
| Tensile strength R m | MPa | 17 |
| Yield strength R e | MPa | 5 |
| Elongation A | % | 45 |
Figure 6
Stress–strain relationship obtained experimentally in the upsetting test for Pb1.
Figure 7
Preparation of split ingots for testing using the visioplasticity method: (a) Split ingot, (b) half of ingot with grid applied, and (c) assembled ingot prepared for testing.
Figure 8
Grid deformation during extrusion of lead through flat dies with various orifice shapes (λ = 12).
Figure 9
Scheme of measuring the depth of the plastic zone L pz, the dead zone L dz, and the dead zone angle α dz.
Figure 10
Relationship between the plastic zone depth (L pz) and the cross-sectional shape of the extruded product.
Figure 11
Relationship between the height of the dead zone (L dz) and the cross-sectional shape of the extruded product.
Figure 12
Relationship between the dead zone angle (α dz) and the cross-sectional shape of the extruded product.
Figure 13
Relationship of maximum extrusion force (F max) to plastic zone depth (L pz), cross-sectional shape of the extruded product, and extrusion ratio (λ).
Figure 14
Relationship of maximum extrusion force (F max) to dead zone height (L dz), cross-sectional shape of the extruded product, and extrusion ratio (λ).
Figure 15
Relationship of maximum extrusion force (F max) to dead zone angle (α dz), cross-sectional shape of the extruded product, and extrusion ratio (λ).
Figure 16
Axial strains (ε z) and radial strains (ε r) as functions of ingot length for extruded cross-sections at λ = 12.
Figure 17
Velocity distribution in the die orifice region (λ = 12).
Figure 18
Division of the plastic zone volume into three components: V 1, V 2, and V 3.
Figure 19
Method for Selecting the Point that Defines the Boundary of the Plastic Zone.
Figure 20
Relationship between volume of plastic zone V pz, shape of an die orifice, and extrusion ratio λ.
Figure 21
Relationship between extrusion force (F max) obtained from experimental measurements and analytically evaluated deformation zone parameters (L pz, L dz, α dz, V pz) for non-axisymmetric profiles.
Figure 22
Plastic flow of material during the transition from a circular billet cross-section to product cross-sections: square, triangular (A-A), triangular (B-B), and rectangular (A-A).