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Influence of process parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties in 6156 aluminum alloy friction stir side additive manufacturing Cover

Influence of process parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties in 6156 aluminum alloy friction stir side additive manufacturing

By: Chaowei Sun,  Hai Zhu and  Danfeng Du  
Open Access
|Nov 2025

Figures & Tables

Figure 1

Schematic diagram of FSSAM process.
Schematic diagram of FSSAM process.

Figure 2

Process parameters for FSSAM additive tools.
Process parameters for FSSAM additive tools.

Figure 3

Extraction location for tensile testing specimens.
Extraction location for tensile testing specimens.

Figure 4

Photomicrographs of FSSAM samples before and after additive manufacturing. (a) Original substrate plate, (b) substrate zone, (c) original additive material sheet, (d) additive zone at 37.5 mm/min and 750 rpm, (e) bonding zone at 37.5 mm/min and 750 rpm, and (f) differences in grain size across different zones.
Photomicrographs of FSSAM samples before and after additive manufacturing. (a) Original substrate plate, (b) substrate zone, (c) original additive material sheet, (d) additive zone at 37.5 mm/min and 750 rpm, (e) bonding zone at 37.5 mm/min and 750 rpm, and (f) differences in grain size across different zones.

Figure 5

Microstructure of the cross section of the additive zone under different tool plunge depths: (a) 2.40 mm, (b) 2.60 mm, and (c) 2.80 mm.
Microstructure of the cross section of the additive zone under different tool plunge depths: (a) 2.40 mm, (b) 2.60 mm, and (c) 2.80 mm.

Figure 6

Interface morphology of the additive zone with different tool plunge depths: (a) 2.40 mm, (b) 2.60 mm, and (c) 2.80 mm.
Interface morphology of the additive zone with different tool plunge depths: (a) 2.40 mm, (b) 2.60 mm, and (c) 2.80 mm.

Figure 7

Surface morphology of the additive zone with different traverse speeds: (a) 23.5 mm/min, (b) 37.5 mm/min, and (c) 47.5 mm/min.
Surface morphology of the additive zone with different traverse speeds: (a) 23.5 mm/min, (b) 37.5 mm/min, and (c) 47.5 mm/min.

Figure 8

Tensile properties of FSSAM at different rotational speeds. (a) Rotational speeds and (b) traverse speeds.
Tensile properties of FSSAM at different rotational speeds. (a) Rotational speeds and (b) traverse speeds.

Figure 9

Surface morphology of the additive zone with different traverse speeds. (a) 47.5 mm/min, (b) 23.5 mm/min and rotational speeds, (c) 600 rpm, and (d) 1,000 rpm.
Surface morphology of the additive zone with different traverse speeds. (a) 47.5 mm/min, (b) 23.5 mm/min and rotational speeds, (c) 600 rpm, and (d) 1,000 rpm.

Figure 10

Microstructure of the additive zone with different traverse speeds. (a) 47.5 mm/min, (b) 37.5 mm/min, and (c) 23.5 mm/min.
Microstructure of the additive zone with different traverse speeds. (a) 47.5 mm/min, (b) 37.5 mm/min, and (c) 23.5 mm/min.

Figure 11

Microstructure of the additive zone with different rotational speeds: (a) 600 rpm, (b) 750 rpm, and (c) 950 rpm.
Microstructure of the additive zone with different rotational speeds: (a) 600 rpm, (b) 750 rpm, and (c) 950 rpm.

Figure 12

Hardness (HV 0.2) of FSSAM at different rotational and traverse speeds. (a) Different tool’s traverse speed and (b) different tool’s rotational speed.
Hardness (HV 0.2) of FSSAM at different rotational and traverse speeds. (a) Different tool’s traverse speed and (b) different tool’s rotational speed.

Figure 13

Schematic temperature diagram of the FSSAM additive manufacturing zone at different additive manufacturing stages.
Schematic temperature diagram of the FSSAM additive manufacturing zone at different additive manufacturing stages.

Figure 14

Schematic temperature diagram for each stage of FSSAM. (A) Physical friction phase of the downward pressure of the additive manufacturing tool. (B) Temperature accumulation and retention phase. (C) Plastic flow phase at the beginning of the additive plastic molding. (D) Stabilization of the molding phase of the additive materials. (E) Exit phase of the additive manufacturing tool.
Schematic temperature diagram for each stage of FSSAM. (A) Physical friction phase of the downward pressure of the additive manufacturing tool. (B) Temperature accumulation and retention phase. (C) Plastic flow phase at the beginning of the additive plastic molding. (D) Stabilization of the molding phase of the additive materials. (E) Exit phase of the additive manufacturing tool.

Chemical composition measured by EDS of the 6156 aluminum alloy sheet [23]_

Chemical elementSiFeCuMnMgCrZnAl
wt [%]0.70.0841.040.430.82<0.050.15Bal

Standard deviation and average value of hardness at different rotational and traverse speeds_

Traverse speed (mm/min)Average valueStandard deviationRotational speed (rpm)Average valueStandard deviation
23.561.002.3560065.435.37
37.568.915.2675068.915.26
47.567.265.5895072.005.22

Process parameters of FSSAM_

No.Traverse speed (mm/min)Rotational speed (rpm)
123.5750
237.5750
347.5750
437.5600
537.5750
637.5950

Plunge depth test of FSSAM_

No.Plunge depth (mm)
12.40
22.60
32.80
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/msp-2025-0037 | Journal eISSN: 2083-134X | Journal ISSN: 2083-1331
Language: English
Page range: 189 - 201
Submitted on: Sep 17, 2025
Accepted on: Nov 5, 2025
Published on: Nov 22, 2025
Published by: Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2025 Chaowei Sun, Hai Zhu, Danfeng Du, published by Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.