Abstract
The proliferation of plastic production in recent years has precipitated a global surge in environmental pollution, with microplastics and nanoplastics (M-NPLs) emerging as omnipresent contaminants across ecosystems. Despite growing awareness of plastic pollution, the systematic toxicity and effects of M-NPLs on human health are often neglected. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the formation, routes of exposure, and potential health impacts of M-NPLs on the human digestive, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Mechanisms of M-NPL formation, including mechanical breakdown, chemical degradation, and biological degradation, are examined, alongside the primary routes of human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The potential effects of M-NPLs exposure include disruption to intestinal homeostasis, inflammatory responses in the respiratory systems and cardiovascular complications. The findings emphasize the importance of conducting comprehensive investigations to fully grasp the enduring impacts of MNPLs on human health and the environment, addressing this significant challenge to environmental and public health.