Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Clinical cases of Cryptosporidium spp. infections in parrots, canaries and pigeons confirmed by molecular and immunochromatographic methods Cover

Clinical cases of Cryptosporidium spp. infections in parrots, canaries and pigeons confirmed by molecular and immunochromatographic methods

Open Access
|Feb 2026

References

  1. Abdou N.E.M.I., Al Azemi M.S., Al-Sayegh M.T., Majeed Q.A.H.: Performance of diagnostic assays used to detect Cryptosporidium oocysts in faecal samples of cattle in Kuwait and genotyping of Cryptosporidium species. BMC Vet Res 2022, 18, 336, doi: 10.1186/s12917-022-03435-w.
  2. Abou Elez R.M.M., Attia A.S.A., Tolba H.M.N., Anter R.G.A., Elsohaby I.: Molecular identification and antiprotozoal activity of silver nanoparticles on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum isolated from pigeons, pigeon fanciers and water. Sci Rep 2023, 13, 3109, doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-30270-2.
  3. Bajer A., Bednarska M., Cacciò S.M., Wolska-Kuśnierz B., Heropolitanska-Pliszka E., Bernatowska E., Wielopolska M., Paziewska A., Welc-Falęciak R., Siński E.: Genotyping of Cryptosporidium isolates from human clinical cases in Poland. Parasitol Res 2008, 103, 37–42, doi: 10.1007/s00436-008-0924-5.
  4. Barrera J.P., Miró G., Carmena D., Foncubierta C., Sarquis J., Marino V., Estévez-Sánchez E., Bailo B., Checa R., Montoya A.: Enhancing diagnostic accuracy: Direct immunofluorescence assay as the gold standard for detecting Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in canine and feline fecal samples. BMC Vet Res 2024, 20, 445, doi: 10.1186/s12917-024-04297-0.
  5. Briceño C., Marcone D., Larraechea M., Hidalgo H., Fredes F., Ramírez-Toloza G., Cabrera G.: Zoonotic Cryptosporidium meleagridis in urban invasive monk parakeets. Zoonoses Public Health 2023, 70, 705–710, doi: 10.1111/zph.13067.
  6. Chalmers R.M., Campbell B.M., Crouch N., Charlett A., Davies A.P.: Comparison of diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of seven Cryptosporidium assays used in the UK. J Med Microbiol 2011, 60, 1598–1604, doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.035980-0.
  7. Faust E.C., D’Antoni J.S., Odom V., Miller M.J., Peres C., Sawitz W., Thomen L.F., Tobie L.E., Walker J.H.: A critical study of clinical laboratory techniques for the diagnosis of protozoan cysts and helminth eggs in feces. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1938, 18, 169–183.
  8. Feng Y., Ryan U.M., Xiao L.: Genetic diversity and population structure of Cryptosporidium. Trends Parasitol 2018, 34, 997–1011, doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.07.009.
  9. Ferrari E.D., Nakamura A.A., Nardi A.R.M., Santana B.N., Camargo V.S., Nagata W.B., Bresciani K.D.S., Meireles M.V.: Cryptosporidium spp. in caged exotic psittacines from Brazil: evaluation of diagnostic methods and molecular characterization. Exp Parasitol 2018, 184, 109–114, doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2017.12.004.
  10. Gibbons P.M., Tell L.A., Kass P.H., Christopher M.M.: Evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of four laboratory tests for detection of occult blood in cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) excrement. Am J Vet Res 2006, 67, 1326–1333 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.67.8.1326.
  11. Gong Z., Kan Z.Z., Huang J.M., Fang Z., Liu X.C., Gu Y.F., Li W.C.: Molecular prevalence and characterization of Cryptosporidium in domestic free-range poultry in Anhui Province, China. Parasitol Res 2021, 120, 3519–3527 doi: 10.1007/s00436-021-07191-y.
  12. Helmy Y.A., Krücken J., Abdelwhab E.M., Samson-Himmelstjerna G., Hafez H.M.: Molecular diagnosis and characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in turkeys and chickens in Germany reveals evidence for previously undetected parasite species. PLoS One 2017, 12, e0177150, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177150.
  13. Holubová N., Zikmundová V., Kicia M., Zajączkowska Ż., Rajský M., Konečný R., Rost M., Mravcová K., Sak B., Kváč M.: Genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp., Encephalitozoon spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in feral and captive pigeons in Central Europe. Parasitol Res 2024, 123, 158, doi: 10.1007/s00436-024-08169-2.
  14. Holubová N., Zikmundová V., Limpouchová Z., Sak B., Konečný R., Hlásková L., Rajský D., Kopacz Z., McEvoy J., Kváč M.: Cryptosporidium proventriculi sp. n. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in Psittaciformes birds. Eur J Protistol 2019, 69, 70–87, doi: 10.1016/j.ejop.2019.03.001.
  15. Huh J.-G., Kim Y.-S., Lee J.-S., Jeong T.-Y., Ryu S.-H., Lee J.-H., Moon J.-S., Kang Y.-K., Shim M.-S., Oh M.-D.: Mycobacterium ulcerans infection as a cause of chronic diarrhea in an AIDS patient: a case report. World J Gastroenterol 2008, 14, 808–811, https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v14/i5/808.htm, doi: 10.3748/wjg.14.808.
  16. Iijima Y., Itoh N., Phrompraphai T., Ito Y., Kimura Y., Kameshima S.: Molecular prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. among companion birds kept in pet shops in Japan. Korean J Parasitol 2018, 56, 281–285, doi: 10.3347/kjp.2018.56.3.281.
  17. Johnson D.W., Pieniazek N.J., Griffin D.W., Misener L., Rose J.B.: Development of a PCR protocol for sensitive detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995, 61, 3849–3855, doi: 10.1128/aem.61.11.3849-3855.1995.
  18. Khurana S., Chaudhary P.: Laboratory diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis. Trop Parasitol 2018, 8, 2–7, doi: 10.4103/tp.TP_27_17.
  19. Kopacz Ż., Kváč M., Karpiński P., Hendrich A.B., Sąsiadek M.M., Leszczyński P., Sak B., McEvoy J., Kicia M.: The first evidence of Cryptosporidium meleagridis infection in a colon adenocarcinoma from an immunocompetent patient. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019, 9, 35, doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00035.
  20. Korpe P.S., Valencia C., Haque R., Mahfuz M., McGrath M., Houpt E., Kosek M., McCormick B.J.J., Penataro Yori P., Babji S., Kang G., Lang D., Gottlieb M., Samie A., Bessong P., Faruque A.S.G., Mduma E., Nshama R., Havt A., Lima I.F.N., Lima A.A.M., Bodhidatta L., Shreshtha A., Petri W.A. Jr, Ahmed T., Duggal P.: Epidemiology and risk factors for cryptosporidiosis in children from 8 low-income sites: results from the MAL-ED study. Clin Infect Dis 2018, 67, 1660–1669, doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy355.
  21. Kumar S., Stecher G., Tamura K.: MEGA7: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 7.0 for bigger datasets. Mol Biol Evol 2016, 33, 1870–1874, doi: 10.1093/molbev/msw054.
  22. Laatamna A.E., Holubová N., Sak B., Kváč M.: Cryptosporidium meleagridis and C. baileyi (Apicomplexa) in domestic and wild birds in Algeria. Folia Parasitol 2017, 64, 018, doi: 10.14411/fp.2017.018.
  23. Li J., Qi M., Chang Y., Wang R., Li T., Dong H., Zhang L.: Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in captive wildlife at Zhengzhou Zoo, China. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015, 62, 833–839, doi: 10.1111/jeu.12269.
  24. Li Z.C., Zhang Y.L., Song X.L., Zhou Y.H., Liu Z.Z., Ayanniyi O.O., Jin S.H., An H.F., Xu Q.M., Zhang Q.X., Yang C.S.: Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. from migratory ducks in Hubei, China. PLoS One 2017, 12:e0185638, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185638.
  25. Makino I., Abe N., Reavill D.R.: Cryptosporidium avian genotype III as a possible causative agent of chronic vomiting in peachfaced lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis). Avian Dis 2010, 54, 1102–1107, doi: 10.1637/9227-123009-Case.1.
  26. Morgan U.M., Xiao L., Limor J., Gelis S., Raidal S.R., Fayer R., Lal A., Elliot A., Thompson R.C.: Cryptosporidium meleagridis in an Indian ring-necked parrot (Psittacula krameri). Aust Vet J 2000, 78, 182–183, doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2000.tb10589.x.
  27. Nakamura A.A., Homem C.G., Silva A.M.J., Meireles M.V.: Diagnosis of gastric cryptosporidiosis in birds using a duplex real-time PCR assay. Vet Parasitol 2014, 205, 7–13, doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.07.033.
  28. Nakamura A.A., Meireles M.V.: Cryptosporidium infections in birds – a review. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet 2015, 24, 253–267, doi: 10.1590/S1984-29612015053.
  29. Nakamura A.A., Simões D.C., Antunes R.G., Silva D.C. da, Meireles M.V.: Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. from fecal samples of birds kept in captivity in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2009, 166, 47–51, doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.07.033.
  30. Ng J., Pavlasek I., Ryan U.: Identification of novel Cryptosporidium genotypes from avian hosts. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006, 72, 7548–7553, doi: 10.1128/AEM.01352-06.
  31. Novaes R.S, Pires M.S., Sudré A.P., Bomfim T.C.B. do: Captive-bred neotropical birds diagnosed with Cryptosporidium avian genotype III. Acta Trop 2018, 178, 297–302, doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.12.013.
  32. Oliveira B.C.M., Ferrari E.D., da Cruz Panegossi M.F., Nakamura A.A., Corbucci F.S., Nagata W.B., Dos Santos B.M., Gomes J.F., Meireles M.V., Widmer G., Bresciani K.D.S.: First description of Cryptosporidium parvum in carrier pigeons (Columba livia). Vet Parasitol 2017, 243, 148–150, doi: 10.1016/jvetpar.2017.06.023.
  33. Panegossi M.F.D.C., Widmer G., Nagata W.B., Oliveira B.C.M., Ferrari E.D., Gomes J.F., Meireles M.V., Nakamura A.A., do Santos-Doni T.R., da Silveira Neto L., Bresciani K.D.S.: Cryptosporidium proventriculi in captive cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Pathogens 2023, 12, 710, doi: 10.3390/pathogens12050710.
  34. Qi M., Wang R., Ning C., Li X., Zhang L., Jian F., Sun Y., Xiao L.: Cryptosporidium spp. in pet birds: genetic diversity and potential public health significance. Exp Parasitol 2011, 128, 336–340, doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2011.04.003.
  35. Ravich M.L., Reavill D.R., Hess L., Childress A.L., Wellehan J.F.X. Jr: Gastrointestinal cryptosporidiosis in captive psittacine birds in the United States: a case review. J Avian Med Surg 2014, 28, 297–303, doi: 10.1647/1082-6742-28.4.297.
  36. Roellig D.M., Xiao L.: Cryptosporidium genotyping for epidemiology tracking. Methods Mol Biol 2020, 2052, 103–116., doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9748-0_7.
  37. Ryan U., Xiao L., Read C., Zhou L., Lal A.A., Pavlásek I.: Identification of novel genotypes from the Czech Republic. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003, 69, 4302–4307, doi: 10.1128/AEM.69.7.4302-4307.2003.
  38. Salama R.Y., Abdelbaset A.E., Takeda Y., Imai K., Ogawa H., Igarashi M.: Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. from migratory ducks around Tokachi subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2020, 82, 571–575, doi: 10.1292/jvms.19-0586.
  39. Santana B.N., Ferrari E.D., Nakamura A.A., Silva G.S. da, Meireles M.V.: Validation of a one-tube nested real-time PCR assay for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in avian fecal samples. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet 2022, 31, e000522, doi: 10.1590/S1984-29612022017.
  40. Shahiduzzaman M., Daugschies A.: Therapy and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in animals. Vet Parasitol 2012, 188, 203–214, doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.01.005.
  41. Silva D.C. da, Homem C.G., Nakamura A.A., Teixeira W.F.P., Perri S.H.V., Meireles M.V.: Physical, epidemiological, and molecular evaluation of infection by Cryptosporidium galli in Passeriformes. Parasitol Res 2010, 107, 271–277, doi: 10.1007/s00436-010-1858-2.
  42. Silverlås C., Mattsson J.G., Insulander M., Lebbad M.: Zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium meleagridis on an organic Swedish farm. Int J Parasitol 2012, 42, 963–967, doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.08.010.
  43. Slavin D.: Cryptosporidium meleagridis sp. nov. J Comp Pathol 1955, 65, 262–266, doi: 10.1016/S0368-1742(55)80025-2.
  44. Sréter T., Széll Z., Varga I.: Anticryptosporidial prophylactic efficacy of enrofloxacin and paromomycin in chickens. J Parasitol 2002, 88, 209–211, doi: 10.1645/0022-3395(2002)088[0209:APEOEA]2.0.CO;2.
  45. Sutherland W.J.: Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2006.
  46. Tyzzer E.E.: Coccidiosis in gallinaceous birds. Am J Epidemiol 1929, 10, 269–383.
  47. Uppal B., Singh O., Chadha S., Jha A.K.: A comparison of nested PCR assay with conventional techniques for diagnosis of intestinal cryptosporidiosis in AIDS cases from northern India. J Parasitol Res 2014, 2014, 706105, doi: 10.1155/2014/706105.
  48. Wang Y., Zhang K., Chen Y., Li X., Zhang L.: Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in wild birds: a One Health perspective. Parasitol Res 2021, 120, 3035–3044, doi: 10.1007/s00436-021-07289-3.
  49. Wesołowska M., Szostakowska B., Kicia M., Sak B., Kváč M., Knysz B.: Cryptosporidium meleagridis infection: the first report in Poland of its occurrence in an HIV-positive woman. Ann Parasitol 2016, 62, 239–241, doi: 10.17420/ap6203.58.
  50. Wolska-Kusnierz B., Bajer A., Caccio S., Heropolitanska-Pliszka E., Bernatowska E., Socha P., van Dongen J., Bednarska M., Paziewska A., Sinski E.: Cryptosporidium infection in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2007, 45, 458–464, doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e318054b09b.
  51. Xiao L., Escalante L., Yang C., Sulaiman I., Escalante A.A., Montali R.J., Fayer R., Lal A.A.: Phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium parasites based on the small-subunit rRNA gene locus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999, 65, 1578–1583, doi: 10.1128/AEM.65.4.1578-1583.1999.
Language: English
Submitted on: Aug 6, 2025
|
Accepted on: Feb 11, 2026
|
Published on: Feb 16, 2026
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2026 Dawid Jańczak, Aleksandra Kornelia Maj, Piotr Górecki, Olga Szaluś-Jordanow, Anna Golke, published by National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

AHEAD OF PRINT