Independent-samples t-tests comparing EC, GE, and DE between high vs_ low PhA groups for whole-body and lower-body PhA, including means, standard deviations, 95% confidence intervals, t statistics with degrees of freedom, p-values, and Cohen's d_
| Whole-body PhA | |||||
| Group 1 | Group 2 | 95% CI | t–Test two–tailed | Cohen's d | |
| EC | M = 11.36 SD =1.54 | M = 11.48 SD = 1.22 | CI [−1.26, 1.03] | t (28) = −0.21 p>0.005 | d = −0.08 small |
| GE | M = 12.39 SD = 1.49 | M = 12.47 SD = 1.58 | CI [−1.28, 1.12] | t (28) = −0.14 p>0.005 | d = −0.05 small |
| DE | M = 24.81 SD = 2.95 | M = 24.84 SD = 2.58 | CI [−2.27, 2.22] | t (28) = −0.02 p>0.005 | d = −0.01 small |
| Lower-body PhA | |||||
| Group 1 | Group 2 | 95% CI | t–Test two–tailed | Cohen's d | |
| EC | M = 11.72 SD = 1.43 | M = 11.04 SD = 1.37 | CI [−0.38, 1.73] | t (28) = 1.31 p>0.005 | d = 0.48 medium |
| GE | M = 12.7 SD = 1.68 | M = 12.09 SD = 1.22 | CI [−0.51, 1.72] | t (28) = 1.12 p>0.005 | d = 0.41 medium |
| DE | M = 24.23 SD = 2.83 | M = 25.51 SD = 2.67 | CI [−3.34, 0.78] | t (28) = −1.27 p>0.005 | d = −0.47 medium |
Pearson's correlations between whole-body and lower-body PhA and performance indicators (EC, GE, DE), including correlation coefficients (r), p-values, and sample sizes (n)_
| EC | GE | DE | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Whole-body PhA | r | −0.138 | −0.323 | 0.235 |
| p-value | 0.468 | 0.081 | 0.212 | |
| n | 30 | 30 | 30 | |
| Lower-body PhA | r | −0.149 | −0.246 | 0.227 |
| p-value | 0.432 | 0.190 | 0.228 | |
| n | 30 | 30 | 30 |
Multivariable linear regression models examining the association between whole-body phase angle and cycling efficiency/economy outcomes_ Coefficients represent the independent contribution of each predictor to delta efficiency (DE), exercise economy (EC), and gross efficiency (GE) after adjustment for sex and fat-free mass (FFM)_ Unstandardized coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), standardized coefficients (β), and p-values are presented alongside the adjusted R2 for each model_
| Predictor | B | SE | Beta | p | Adjusted R2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DE | Sex | 2.47 | 2.27 | 0.45 | 0.286 | 0.03 |
| FFM | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.64 | 0.141 | 0.03 | |
| Whole–body PhA | 0.35 | 1.1 | 0.09 | 0.75 | 0.03 | |
| EC | Sex | −1.57 | 1.19 | −0.56 | 0.197 | −0.01 |
| FFM | −0.07 | 0.05 | −0.58 | 0.186 | −0.01 | |
| Whole–body PhA | −0.23 | 0.58 | −0.12 | 0.691 | −0.01 | |
| GE | Sex | −1.08 | 1.06 | −0.37 | 0.315 | 0.27 |
| FFM | −0.12 | 0.05 | −0.98 | 0.013 | 0.27 | |
| Whole–body PhA | 0.28 | 0.51 | 0.14 | 0.59 | 0.27 |
Body composition and bioelectrical characteristics of participants classified into low and high phase-angle groups_ Values are presented as mean, standard deviation (SD), and range (minimum–maximum) for each parameter_
| PhA Group (Low) n = 20 | PhA Group (High) n = 10 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Range | Min | Max | Mean | SD | Range | Min | Max | |
| Body composition parameters | ||||||||||
| FFM (kg) | 48.3 | 10.9 | 32.5 | 33.0 | 65.5 | 54.5 | 13.2 | 34.2 | 39.1 | 73.3 |
| FM (%) | 27.9 | 11.8 | 39.8 | 7.1 | 46.9 | 25.4 | 11.7 | 34.3 | 8.6 | 42.9 |
| SMM (kg) | 26.7 | 6.6 | 19.6 | 17.6 | 37.2 | 30.6 | 8.0 | 20.5 | 21.4 | 41.9 |
| ECW (L) | 15.7 | 3.2 | 11.2 | 11.4 | 22.6 | 16.9 | 4.5 | 12.4 | 12.0 | 24.4 |
| ICW (L) | 21.5 | 6.6 | 22.7 | 13.1 | 35.8 | 24.7 | 8.9 | 24.7 | 14.4 | 39.1 |
| ECW/ICW | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.8 |
| FFM_legs (kg) | 14.9 | 3.4 | 9.7 | 9.6 | 19.3 | 16.7 | 4.4 | 11.4 | 11.3 | 22.7 |
| FM_legs (%) | 28.1 | 11.4 | 37.9 | 8.6 | 46.5 | 25.4 | 10.5 | 31.1 | 9.7 | 40.8 |
| Bioelectrical parameters | ||||||||||
| Xc/H (Ohm/m) | 38.4 | 6.0 | 20.9 | 29.8 | 50.7 | 40.6 | 7.2 | 25.6 | 29.9 | 55.5 |
| R/H (Ohm/m) | 410.3 | 92.5 | 288.3 | 278.2 | 566.5 | 374.9 | 80.0 | 220.4 | 280.6 | 501.0 |
| Whole-body PhA (degree) | 5.4 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 4.1 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 5.5 | 6.9 |
| Lower-body PhA (degree) | 6.0 | 0.6 | 2.3 | 4.9 | 7.2 | 6.9 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 5.9 | 7.7 |