Fig.1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
![Chest image reconstruction by EIT [21].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64721e8e215d2f6c89dbc94e/j_joeb-2021-0007_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKCPUFTDAS%2F20260322%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260322T120701Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEJv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIAv8RmKoJSYdpo9WwJa12ioo9vC6lFU9GCy2cRrArCY9AiEAuFaFwfXOFP6SXeFOu1kTlZrPp0sOhIezDbHrUxWJ7vMqvAUIZBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDMCySlX3ZFiASpGZESqZBew6Bh7SFlhDp7kPngSEkOm7DfUaCCzlnk%2F96M%2BGj6bVllwflKtFF369ueNXwUXgQPhar%2FZ5aVsmnuN8b8DpdLwyvw%2FmKRV7NkFdAHuqj1cdr2F2Pb8cM3oBDLHaeesYntxlJmwgKiGT46aHyjU9qO%2B45yweHWJ5LhbOUEdvHMs3fSj4C8OwgUnnFCKW7REzdjvZwR8AkGyU0V0BrO0Rg4LwIL80hIekaEeRGRr6o%2BN67O6TIrRk5ZN3LmNYlsJcazdEWRsilIkHMOP1X9ScULzPlraqpb5hxobyCLhhswtK4OsrscQxsjxoqrigpWyYSiC%2FisL4QaeH62nB8Zk4rbv9982JeJyKfvK5AVTL%2BqNWJxMAatd5ny0s7u9EzfU5Jy7yzBWpXV%2BAPs9nTpGb5zmHvpujp8eigCDdheC4E1wIuzLUJk0gZmHshkWuFLEh57tnOtC4G5BBXMB%2FsFJtIL93w5OtUGy3TIZaLAuHVq4EVhSOh8mLkskeuc2ChRSH5NRhUS9z5haBHre3E19VGlQ5ARerowOxQln%2FjzBewLqhvMe5t5ZNw2wGT6VZ5WdSAZoyO2ezZfUXrcaBb0ggwn18ubVus0yltoYtaTSMoV0BXNAT8u9ytZV6jFcJaNdklSexH01gAYN5y1iIug1ml%2FPeCwt0Cmg%2FqzGSoe2yjvJFcdKbQ0HuKfEuK5KfgwOn%2FwR9w83gcO6UC8FFzUXaTFv%2FcjkSJAzunRnTR8UGp1j2TxjsR8vXqZz%2Fu5ITPMil5TLv4MmNGJs3zCazG9gjGBU6nOK9AWwkP04ONaIuSKVI%2Bu7mm%2BwzyX319JUKaEZMRdF1rRnPsMvwE7sj6FclZdGcTyHbEnk8Bth37n2BWYSn9vsXaYGfEyX9MLig%2F80GOrEBKjwIuCMVTTca4fj9t3iBIyDyuUuDk280m8zHuUB7dnCO099sK0YvAvdgXRg1z0gRxLzZ64rcMNVUQ0xwd7quMwhYy9irGts%2FL374zgbxC6VUgq%2FUaT21GX229pZZUStpAyNERPwzTbmxmGW2uC1j4As5HCAgMON7IqncRcQQPtvLcd8tVCJ7f5XfV83mqUEO9uOs%2BJGtmVUhQ0OLo1CspI0Hew3C5pcYZDrjHo0NFcs0&X-Amz-Signature=0cab816d10260239e8acc56be83096eaacef0db687aa0e3640e4d6695d937755&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
![Comparison of the phantom reconstruction obtained with the linear inverse solver (left), and the proposed method using ANN and PSO (right). Both targets are indicated by red circles [54].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64721e8e215d2f6c89dbc94e/j_joeb-2021-0007_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKCPUFTDAS%2F20260322%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260322T120701Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEJv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIAv8RmKoJSYdpo9WwJa12ioo9vC6lFU9GCy2cRrArCY9AiEAuFaFwfXOFP6SXeFOu1kTlZrPp0sOhIezDbHrUxWJ7vMqvAUIZBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDMCySlX3ZFiASpGZESqZBew6Bh7SFlhDp7kPngSEkOm7DfUaCCzlnk%2F96M%2BGj6bVllwflKtFF369ueNXwUXgQPhar%2FZ5aVsmnuN8b8DpdLwyvw%2FmKRV7NkFdAHuqj1cdr2F2Pb8cM3oBDLHaeesYntxlJmwgKiGT46aHyjU9qO%2B45yweHWJ5LhbOUEdvHMs3fSj4C8OwgUnnFCKW7REzdjvZwR8AkGyU0V0BrO0Rg4LwIL80hIekaEeRGRr6o%2BN67O6TIrRk5ZN3LmNYlsJcazdEWRsilIkHMOP1X9ScULzPlraqpb5hxobyCLhhswtK4OsrscQxsjxoqrigpWyYSiC%2FisL4QaeH62nB8Zk4rbv9982JeJyKfvK5AVTL%2BqNWJxMAatd5ny0s7u9EzfU5Jy7yzBWpXV%2BAPs9nTpGb5zmHvpujp8eigCDdheC4E1wIuzLUJk0gZmHshkWuFLEh57tnOtC4G5BBXMB%2FsFJtIL93w5OtUGy3TIZaLAuHVq4EVhSOh8mLkskeuc2ChRSH5NRhUS9z5haBHre3E19VGlQ5ARerowOxQln%2FjzBewLqhvMe5t5ZNw2wGT6VZ5WdSAZoyO2ezZfUXrcaBb0ggwn18ubVus0yltoYtaTSMoV0BXNAT8u9ytZV6jFcJaNdklSexH01gAYN5y1iIug1ml%2FPeCwt0Cmg%2FqzGSoe2yjvJFcdKbQ0HuKfEuK5KfgwOn%2FwR9w83gcO6UC8FFzUXaTFv%2FcjkSJAzunRnTR8UGp1j2TxjsR8vXqZz%2Fu5ITPMil5TLv4MmNGJs3zCazG9gjGBU6nOK9AWwkP04ONaIuSKVI%2Bu7mm%2BwzyX319JUKaEZMRdF1rRnPsMvwE7sj6FclZdGcTyHbEnk8Bth37n2BWYSn9vsXaYGfEyX9MLig%2F80GOrEBKjwIuCMVTTca4fj9t3iBIyDyuUuDk280m8zHuUB7dnCO099sK0YvAvdgXRg1z0gRxLzZ64rcMNVUQ0xwd7quMwhYy9irGts%2FL374zgbxC6VUgq%2FUaT21GX229pZZUStpAyNERPwzTbmxmGW2uC1j4As5HCAgMON7IqncRcQQPtvLcd8tVCJ7f5XfV83mqUEO9uOs%2BJGtmVUhQ0OLo1CspI0Hew3C5pcYZDrjHo0NFcs0&X-Amz-Signature=af8a1778fa4e387c568157ba2d73b44b1c1f6a8da30d79cdb21413de46c92f30&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 6
![Series of dynamic images showing air filling during inspiration by the PulmoVista500 system [81].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64721e8e215d2f6c89dbc94e/j_joeb-2021-0007_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKCPUFTDAS%2F20260322%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260322T120701Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEJv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIAv8RmKoJSYdpo9WwJa12ioo9vC6lFU9GCy2cRrArCY9AiEAuFaFwfXOFP6SXeFOu1kTlZrPp0sOhIezDbHrUxWJ7vMqvAUIZBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDMCySlX3ZFiASpGZESqZBew6Bh7SFlhDp7kPngSEkOm7DfUaCCzlnk%2F96M%2BGj6bVllwflKtFF369ueNXwUXgQPhar%2FZ5aVsmnuN8b8DpdLwyvw%2FmKRV7NkFdAHuqj1cdr2F2Pb8cM3oBDLHaeesYntxlJmwgKiGT46aHyjU9qO%2B45yweHWJ5LhbOUEdvHMs3fSj4C8OwgUnnFCKW7REzdjvZwR8AkGyU0V0BrO0Rg4LwIL80hIekaEeRGRr6o%2BN67O6TIrRk5ZN3LmNYlsJcazdEWRsilIkHMOP1X9ScULzPlraqpb5hxobyCLhhswtK4OsrscQxsjxoqrigpWyYSiC%2FisL4QaeH62nB8Zk4rbv9982JeJyKfvK5AVTL%2BqNWJxMAatd5ny0s7u9EzfU5Jy7yzBWpXV%2BAPs9nTpGb5zmHvpujp8eigCDdheC4E1wIuzLUJk0gZmHshkWuFLEh57tnOtC4G5BBXMB%2FsFJtIL93w5OtUGy3TIZaLAuHVq4EVhSOh8mLkskeuc2ChRSH5NRhUS9z5haBHre3E19VGlQ5ARerowOxQln%2FjzBewLqhvMe5t5ZNw2wGT6VZ5WdSAZoyO2ezZfUXrcaBb0ggwn18ubVus0yltoYtaTSMoV0BXNAT8u9ytZV6jFcJaNdklSexH01gAYN5y1iIug1ml%2FPeCwt0Cmg%2FqzGSoe2yjvJFcdKbQ0HuKfEuK5KfgwOn%2FwR9w83gcO6UC8FFzUXaTFv%2FcjkSJAzunRnTR8UGp1j2TxjsR8vXqZz%2Fu5ITPMil5TLv4MmNGJs3zCazG9gjGBU6nOK9AWwkP04ONaIuSKVI%2Bu7mm%2BwzyX319JUKaEZMRdF1rRnPsMvwE7sj6FclZdGcTyHbEnk8Bth37n2BWYSn9vsXaYGfEyX9MLig%2F80GOrEBKjwIuCMVTTca4fj9t3iBIyDyuUuDk280m8zHuUB7dnCO099sK0YvAvdgXRg1z0gRxLzZ64rcMNVUQ0xwd7quMwhYy9irGts%2FL374zgbxC6VUgq%2FUaT21GX229pZZUStpAyNERPwzTbmxmGW2uC1j4As5HCAgMON7IqncRcQQPtvLcd8tVCJ7f5XfV83mqUEO9uOs%2BJGtmVUhQ0OLo1CspI0Hew3C5pcYZDrjHo0NFcs0&X-Amz-Signature=c204c785a846dcb845a62fe8d1e34ffc57bf338ff48c31afa1809dc4044126cc&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 7
![Cardiac monitoring by CardioInspect system [88].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64721e8e215d2f6c89dbc94e/j_joeb-2021-0007_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKCPUFTDAS%2F20260322%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260322T120701Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEJv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIAv8RmKoJSYdpo9WwJa12ioo9vC6lFU9GCy2cRrArCY9AiEAuFaFwfXOFP6SXeFOu1kTlZrPp0sOhIezDbHrUxWJ7vMqvAUIZBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDMCySlX3ZFiASpGZESqZBew6Bh7SFlhDp7kPngSEkOm7DfUaCCzlnk%2F96M%2BGj6bVllwflKtFF369ueNXwUXgQPhar%2FZ5aVsmnuN8b8DpdLwyvw%2FmKRV7NkFdAHuqj1cdr2F2Pb8cM3oBDLHaeesYntxlJmwgKiGT46aHyjU9qO%2B45yweHWJ5LhbOUEdvHMs3fSj4C8OwgUnnFCKW7REzdjvZwR8AkGyU0V0BrO0Rg4LwIL80hIekaEeRGRr6o%2BN67O6TIrRk5ZN3LmNYlsJcazdEWRsilIkHMOP1X9ScULzPlraqpb5hxobyCLhhswtK4OsrscQxsjxoqrigpWyYSiC%2FisL4QaeH62nB8Zk4rbv9982JeJyKfvK5AVTL%2BqNWJxMAatd5ny0s7u9EzfU5Jy7yzBWpXV%2BAPs9nTpGb5zmHvpujp8eigCDdheC4E1wIuzLUJk0gZmHshkWuFLEh57tnOtC4G5BBXMB%2FsFJtIL93w5OtUGy3TIZaLAuHVq4EVhSOh8mLkskeuc2ChRSH5NRhUS9z5haBHre3E19VGlQ5ARerowOxQln%2FjzBewLqhvMe5t5ZNw2wGT6VZ5WdSAZoyO2ezZfUXrcaBb0ggwn18ubVus0yltoYtaTSMoV0BXNAT8u9ytZV6jFcJaNdklSexH01gAYN5y1iIug1ml%2FPeCwt0Cmg%2FqzGSoe2yjvJFcdKbQ0HuKfEuK5KfgwOn%2FwR9w83gcO6UC8FFzUXaTFv%2FcjkSJAzunRnTR8UGp1j2TxjsR8vXqZz%2Fu5ITPMil5TLv4MmNGJs3zCazG9gjGBU6nOK9AWwkP04ONaIuSKVI%2Bu7mm%2BwzyX319JUKaEZMRdF1rRnPsMvwE7sj6FclZdGcTyHbEnk8Bth37n2BWYSn9vsXaYGfEyX9MLig%2F80GOrEBKjwIuCMVTTca4fj9t3iBIyDyuUuDk280m8zHuUB7dnCO099sK0YvAvdgXRg1z0gRxLzZ64rcMNVUQ0xwd7quMwhYy9irGts%2FL374zgbxC6VUgq%2FUaT21GX229pZZUStpAyNERPwzTbmxmGW2uC1j4As5HCAgMON7IqncRcQQPtvLcd8tVCJ7f5XfV83mqUEO9uOs%2BJGtmVUhQ0OLo1CspI0Hew3C5pcYZDrjHo0NFcs0&X-Amz-Signature=75844f7d9905e6235d81b678f61f34a3a6ec2ec4dadc7d106b4a30c04ad6aee7&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Comparison between different imaging modalities_
| Medical imaging modality | CT | US | MRI | EIT |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basic principle | X-rays | High frequency sound | Radio waves | Impedance |
| Types of radiation | Ionizing radiation | Non-Ionizing radiation | Non-Ionizing radiation | Non-Ionizing radiation |
| Contrast | High | Low | High | Low |
| Spatial Resolution | 50-200 μm | 50-500 μm | 25-100 μm | Low |
| Scanning time | <20 min | < 30 min | <40 min | <10 min |
| Cost | Moderate | Low | Very High | Low |
| Size | Non portable | Portable | Non portable | Portable |
| Advantages | Bone and tumor imaging, anatomic imaging | Visualize muscles, tendon and internal organs | Morphological and functional imaging | Rapid tomographic imaging, low cost, noninvasive |
| Disadvantages | High cost Ionizing radiation | Operator dependency | Noisy, cost, low sensitivity | Not mature yet |
Image reconstruction algorithms_
| Reconstruction algorithm | Description |
|---|---|
| Linear approach | - Solves the forward problem |
| Simple stage reconstruction | - Solves the forward problem |
| Sheffield Back-projection | - Solves the forward problem |
| Newton-Raphson | - Solves the forward problem based on EMFm |
| Optimization by particle swarms | - Solves the inverse problem |
Electrical conductivity for Human tissues_
| Tissue | Conductivity (mS/m) |
|---|---|
| Cerebrospinal fluid | 1450 - 1800 |
| Blood | 500 - 650 |
| Scalp | 300 - 400 |
| Brain | 300 - 420 |
| Muscle | 200 - 400 |
| Fat | 50 |
| Bone | 6 |