Table 1
Summarizes the social and innate defence responses against the various foreign bodies
| Immune Parameter | Foreign Body |
|---|---|
| Social Immunity | |
| Social fever | Fungi (Starks et al., 2000) |
| Plant Resins | Bacteria (Antúnez et al., 2008) Fungi (Simone-Finstrom & Spivak, 2012) |
| Grooming | Tracheal mite (Danka & Villa, 1998) Varroa (Guzman-Novoa et al., 2012) |
| Hygienic behaviour | Fungi (Gilliam et al., 1983) Bacteria (Spivak & Reuter, 2001) Varroa (Ibrahim et al., 2007) |
| Division of labour | Pathogen transmission (Naug & Camazine, 2002) |
| Innate Immunity | |
| Phagocytosis | Small bacteria and virus (James & Xu, 2012; Larsen et al., 2019) |
| Nodulation | Fungi (James & Xu, 2012; Larsen et al., 2019) |
| Encapsulation | Large parasites (James & Xu, 2012; Larsen et al., 2019) |
| Antibacterial activity | Neonicotinoids and bacteria (Dickel et al., 2018) |
| Antimicrobial peptides | Varroa and Virus (Gregorc et al., 2012) Pesticides (Garrido et al., 2013) Bacteria, fungi, protozoa (Danihlík et al., 2015) |
| RNA interference, dsRNA | Virus (Brutscher et al., 2015) |
| Prophenoloxisade activation | Microbial infection (Li et al., 2018) |
Fig. 1
Various factors influencing bee immunity.
Fig. 2
Interrelationships between different stress factors downregulating immune system of honey bees. IRG, immunity related genes; GOX, glucose oxidase. Blue arrows show effects supported by literature. Red arrows show possible effects with less literature support. Numeric values indicate the references of supporting literature. 1 Mckinstry et al. (2017); 2 Steinmann et al. (2015); 3 Lopez-Martinez et al. (2008); 4 Melicher et al. (2019); 5 Dainat et al. (2012b); 6 Gauthier et al. (2007); 7 Flores et al. (1996); 8 Szymaś & Jędruszuk (2003); 9 Alaux et al. (2010a); 10 Martin-Hernandez et al. (2011); 11 Alaux et al. (2010b); 12 Mayack & Naug (2010); 13 DeGrandhi-Hoffmman & Chen (2015); 14 Huang (2012); 15 Brandt et al. (2016); 16 Perveen & Ahmad (2017); 17 Brandt et al. (2017); 18 Boncristiani et al. (2012); 19 Yoshida (1988); 20 Gregorc et al. (2012); 21 Motta et al. (2018); 22 Dai et al. (2018); 23 May et al. (2015); 24 Chakrabarti et al. (2015); 25 Shen et al. (2005); 26 Nazzi et al. (2012); 27 Goulson et al. (2015); 28 DiPrisco et al. (2013); 29 Evans & Pettis (2005); 30 Gregorc & Bowen (1998); 31 Zakaria (2007); 32 Higes et al. (2007); 33 Chaimanee et al. (2012); 34 Mayack & Naug (2009); 35 Campbell et al. (2010); 36 Salem et al. (2006); 37 Richards et al. (2011); 38 Esch (1988); 39 Vandame & Belzunces (1998); 40 Sánchez-Bayo et al. (2016); 41 Meikle et al. (2016).