Journal of Apicultural Science Feed

Therapeutic Effect of Lachancea fermentati on Vairimorpha (Nosema) Ceranae Infection in Bees

Wed, 01 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Nosemosis is caused by microsporidian species, Vairimorpha ceranae (V. ceranae). V. ceranae-infected bees exhibit various such symptoms as digestive issues, weakened immunity, and shortened lifespans. We aimed to verify the therapeutic effects of Lachancea fermentati (L. fermentati) on V. ceranae-infected honeybees. Lachancea fermentati were isolated from the midgut and confirmed as L. fermentati using ribosomal DNA (rDNA) analysis. Whether the bees had fed on L. fermentati was confirmed using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To analyze the therapeutic effect of L. fermentati on V. ceranae infection, various concentrations of L. fermentati were fed to V. ceranae-infected bees, and DNA was extracted from the bees to evaluate V. ceranae gene expression levels. The therapeutic effect of L. fermentati against nosemosis was compared with that of fumagillin, which is commonly used to treat V. ceranae infection. Notably, V. ceranae-infected bees had undetectable V. ceranae gene expression after being fed L. fermentati (1×108 spores/mL). The therapeutic effect of L. fermentati against V. ceranae infection was comparable or even superior to that of fumagillin. These results indicate that L. fermentati has a potent therapeutic effect on nosemosis.

Mineral Content Variations in Local and Imported Honey: A Case Study in Kosovo

Wed, 01 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

This study of mineral content variations in thirty local and imported honey samples from Kosovo focused on Zn, Ca, Fe, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, and Na. Mineral content was determined by MP-AES, and statistical analysis included ANOVA, Spearman's rank correlation, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Local honey contained higher levels of K, Fe, Mn, and Cu but lower levels of Na, Ca, Zn, and Mg compared to imported honey. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed in acacia honey for K and Mn, and in multifloral and forest honey for K, Mn, Na, Zn, and Cu. PCA clearly separated local and imported honeys, supporting the potential of mineral profiling for geographic origin differentiation. Positive correlations (p<0.05 or p<0.01) were detected among several mineral pairs in both local and imported honey samples, indicating synergistic accumulation influenced by botanical and environmental factors. Mineral concentrations remained below EU permissible levels for honey, confirming safety. These findings highlight the nutritional value of local honey and the influence of geographic and botanical origin on its mineral composition.

Insecticide Susceptibility and Detoxifying Enzyme Activity in Managed Honey Bees in a Southern Mexico Landscape

Wed, 01 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Pesticide exposure in honey bees triggers a series of biochemical cascades, including the activation of detoxifying enzymes. Consequently, a specific pesticide susceptibility profile may correlate with a distinct enzymatic activity pattern. In this study, we analyzed pesticide residues in honey samples through gas chromatography, assessed the susceptibility profile by determining the median Lethal Time (LT50 for commercial formulations of malathion, imidacloprid, and cypermethrin, and measured the activity of detoxifying enzymes - ρNPA, α- and β-esterases P450, GST, and AChE - in foragers from thirteen apiaries located in Chiapas, Mexico. We also conducted palynological analyses to identify pollen from crops in the bees’ diets to corroborate the pesticide residue findings. No pesticide residues were detected above the method's detection limits in our samples; palynological analysis showed that foragers primarily collected pollen from wild plant species, suggesting low probability of exposure to insecticides and supporting the pesticide residues results. The malathion formulation caused the highest toxicity (lowest LT50) across all sites, whereas cypermethrin was the least toxic (mortality < 20% at 12 h after exposure). Enzyme activities varied across study sites: foragers from the Tapachula apiary exhibited the lowest AChE activity, whereas those from Villa Comaltitlan showed the highest activity. No clear correlation between enzyme activity and LT50 for the different formulations was observed. Our results suggest that managed honey bee apiaries were exposed to xenobiotics other than insecticides, as shown by residue and palynological analyses, leading to distinct enzymatic and susceptibility profiles.

Comb Morphometry of Apis florea Colony Detected in Malta

Thu, 09 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

The red dwarf honey bee Apis florea Fabricius 1787, a single open comb constructing honey bee native to Asia, has been expanding its distributional range to Africa and Europe, and also reportedly intercepted in Western Australia. The first fully established colony of A. florea in Europe was found in Malta in 2024 near its shipping freeport to the south. The comb was collected, stored, and analysed morphometrically. The following morphometric measurements are reported in this paper: height and width of the comb; surface area of the comb (including crest, worker brood, and drone brood); depth, diameter, and volume of the cells (worker brood, drone brood, and crest); and the angle of the comb against the vertical. The cell measurements were concordant with other cell measurements found in the literature. These data might serve as a reference point for future studies, focusing on comparison of comb morphometry between native and introduced colonies.

Structural Variations in Complete Mitogenome of Stingless Bees Serve as Auxiliary Molecular Markers for Generic Systematics

Mon, 06 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

For this study, mitochondrial-level research was conducted into the stingless bee species Lepidotrigona arcifera in order to assemble the complete mitogenome sequence of L. arcifera, analyze its structural characteristics, and provide a more reliable and valuable taxonomic basis for resolving the complex phylogeny of Meliponini tribe. We obtained the complete mitogenome of L. arcifera, spanning 15,260 bp in length and comprising thirteen protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), twenty-two transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and a control region (D-loop). Phylogenetic analysis showed that L. arcifera has the closest genetic relationship with Lepidotrigona flavibasis (genus Lepidotrigona), followed by Lepidotrigona terminata (genus Lepidotrigona), and then Tetragonula pagdeni (genus Tetragonula), consistent with our previous findings. We further conducted a comparative analysis of structural variations across mitogenomes, revealing significant divergence in gene order and transcriptional orientation. The thirty-eight mitochondrial genes were categorized into four blocks (I-IV) and the D-loop. An inversion within Block IV distinguished L. arcifera from its closest relative L. flavibasis. Conserved block order was highly consistent within Melipona. Notably, Frieseomelitta varia (genus Frieseomelitta) and Tetragonisca angustula (genus Tetragonisca) formed a distinct clade and shared an identical block arrangement, which differed from other species. This study presents the first complete mitogenome sequence of L. arcifera, enriching the genomic resources for this taxon. More importantly, it reveals extensive mitochondrial gene rearrangements in stingless bees, suggesting that such structural variations represent valuable auxiliary molecular markers for stingless bee species classification.

Pathogens and Parasites of Feral and Managed Honey Bee, Apis mellifera, Colonies from Utah, USA

Mon, 06 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

\AbstractHoney bee colonies in the United States continue to experience health challenges driven by parasites, pathogens, and environmental stressors. To establish a statewide baseline for honey bee health in Utah, we conducted a multi pathogen and parasite survey of 429 feral and managed Apis mellifera colonies collected from seventeen counties across three major ecological regions between 2008 and 2021. Colonies were screened for Varroa destructor, Nosema apis, N. ceranae, Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae, and the bacterial symbionts Spiroplasma apis and S. melliferum. Overall pathogen and parasite occurrence in Utah was low: N. ceranae and L. passim were each detected in 7.3% of colonies, while V. destructor was found in 9.0% of colonies screened. No samples were positive for N. apis, Crithidia spp., or either Spiroplasma species. Pathogen prevalence did not differ significantly between feral and non-migratory managed colonies, but strikingly low Varroa levels were observed in A-lineage feral colonies, with only one of forty-four colonies (2.3%) testing positive. Pathogens and parasites were detected across all ecological regions, although prevalence varied geographically and among mitochondrial DNA lineages. These results provide the first comprehensive assessment of pathogens and parasites in Utah honey bees, establish a critical baseline for future monitoring, and highlight the need for targeted studies investigating the potential mite resistance or reduced exposure of Utah’s A-lineage feral populations.

Spiroplasmas as Causative Agents of Honey Bees Diseases

Sun, 08 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Spiroplasmas are bacteria that play a significant role in the development of bee diseases. Infections of bees with spiroplasmas have been registered in Europe, America and Asia, and such infections occur through contaminated food, the sting of Varroa destructor, and vertically. The most important species that cause bee spiroplasmosis are conditionally pathogenic bacteria Spiroplasma apis and Spiroplasma melliferum. S. apis causes the neurological “May disease” which occurs in France, and S. melliferum causes the bee crawling disease which occurs in China; these two diseases stand out based on the specific symptoms and place of occurrence. Spiroplasmas are widely distributed in nature and relatively resistant to desiccation and the action of other external factors. The most important reservoir of spiroplasmas are insects, where they normally inhabit the digestive tract and have a beneficial role for the host, but some can also be pathogenic. All sources of spiroplasmas in the environment are still not known and insufficiently studied. Considering the increasing negative impact of non-specific factors affecting bees, the risk of diseases caused by spiroplasmas is increasing. In order to prevent the occurrence of diseases caused by spiroplasmas, it is important to study further the sources of spiroplasmas and other factors significant for the occurrence of infection and to implement appropriate measures of good beekeeping practice, good veterinary practice and to strengthen the immune system of bee colonies.

An Analysis of the Prevalence of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Nosema Spp. Pathogens of Free-Living Bee Colonies

Mon, 16 Feb 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) may inhabit abandoned beehives in trees in the city and forests. Bees that naturally occupy abandoned nests, cavities, or hives are not managed by humans and are not treated for pathogens; consequently, they may be particularly susceptible to diseases. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Nosema  spp. in free-living bee colonies through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The study was conducted on samples of adult bees, pupae, larvae, bee bread and honey. The pathogens were detected in two samples. The predominant pathogen was L. passim, which was found in adult bees and four-day-old larvae. In addition, Nosema apis was found only in bees. The results of this study indicate that pathogens may be present in apparently healthy bee colonies and their larvae. Early detection of pathogens in adult bees and larvae can enhance the effectiveness of veterinary treatment in apiaries.

Field Evaluation of Oxalic Acid Vaporisation for Varroa Mite (Varroa destructor) Control in European Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Colonies

Tue, 13 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Varroa mites (Varroa destructor) are a major threat to honey bee health globally. Oxalic acid has gained popularity among beekeepers as a potential varroa mite control agent. This study evaluated the efficacy of oxalic acid vaporisation for managing varroa mites in field conditions in Taiwan. Twenty-four colonies of Italian honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) were divided into six groups, each consisting of four colonies: a control (no treatment), four treatment groups receiving two, four, six or eight oxalic acid treatments bi-weekly, and a group treated with Flumethrin strips (40 mg flumethrin/strip). Oxalic acid was vaporized at a rate of approximately 2 g per beehive. After thirty-five days, colonies receiving six and eight oxalic acid vaporisations showed significant reductions in varroa mite infestations, by 86% and 97%, respectively. Moreover, significantly higher worker bee mortality was observed in colonies receiving four, six, or eight oxalic acid vaporisations compared to the control. These findings suggest that six or eight oxalic acid (2 g/hive) vaporisations can effectively control varroa mite infestations in honey bees under field conditions, however beekeepers should be aware of potential impacts on worker bee mortality.

The Role of Digital Platforms in Enhancing Customer Relationships and Building Strategic Advantage in Beekeeping

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

This study examines how beekeepers perceive the benefits of digital platforms for customer relationships and strategic outcomes, and whether these perceptions differ based on their digital experience. Using a mixed-method approach, data were collected in 2024 in Poland through a survey of 949 beekeepers and 30 expert interviews. Quantitative results show that digitally experienced beekeepers reported higher perceived benefits across all customer relationship dimensions and most strategic ones, particularly in transparency and honey quality, as confirmed by Mann-Whitney U tests and a random forest model. No significant difference was found for customer loyalty, indicating that loyalty depends more on long-term relationships than digital proficiency. Qualitative insights revealed that digital platforms foster trust, support quality improvement, and strengthen beekeeper–customer connections. The study enhances our understanding of how digital experiences shape perceived benefits, and it also provides practical guidance for prioritizing platform features that promote transparency, quality monitoring, and effective communication.

Effect of Post-Thaw Dilution of Dialyzed and Cryopreserved Drone Semen on Quality of Queen Honey Bees

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Cryopreservation of honeybee (Apis melifera) drone semen remains a significant challenge. Despite decades of research, maintaining sperm viability and functionality after thawing continues to limit the practical use of frozen semen. This study investigated the effect of post-thaw dilution of cryopreserved drone semen with Bee Semen Solution (BSS) on semen viability and queen reproductive performance. Queen bees were instrumentally inseminated with fresh or cryopreserved semen, either undiluted or diluted with BSS after thawing. The impact of these treatments on the number and quality of spermatozoa in the spermatheca and on brood pattern was assessed. Cryopreservation markedly affected sperm quality and the reproductive performance of inseminated queens, resulting in lower sperm viability and reduced fertility compared with fresh semen. However, post-thaw dilution of semen with BSS tended to improve sperm parameters in the spermatheca and queen fertility. The results indicate that post-thaw handling of semen, including the use of appropriate diluents, may play an important role in improving the outcomes of insemination with dialysis method cryopreserved semen. We also emphasize that multiple insemination should be considered as a method of improving spermatozoa number in spermahteca and, consequently, queen fertility.

Cytotoxic and Apoptotic Potential of Different Ecotypes of Anatolian Honeybee (Apis Mellifera L.) Venoms on Various Cancer Cells

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Honeybees play a crucial ecological and economic role by pollinating both natural ecosystems and cultivated crops. Beyond this, they produce such valuable natural products as honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, beeswax, and bee venom, which have been used for centuries in traditional medicine. With the growing interest in natural compounds for disease prevention and treatment, apitherapy and bee-derived products have gained renewed attention. Among these, bee venom (BV) stands out due to its rich composition of bioactive molecules, including peptides such as melittin, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), apamin, mast cell degranulation peptide, secapin, and adolapin, as well as enzymes as hyaluronidase. These components are known for their therapeutic potential, particularly in inflammation and cancer-related applications. In this study, the cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing effects of Apis mellifera L. venom samples collected from fifty-one locations across Türkiye were tested against seven human cancer cell lines (Caco-2, PC3, U-87MG, MDA-MB-231, A549, HeLa, Panc-1) and one healthy line (CCD-34Lu). Cytotoxicity was assessed with use of the MTT assay, and IC50 values ranged from 1.64±0.70 to 98.33±9.28 µg/ml. Venoms from Maçahel, Faraşin, Kırklareli, Düzce, Adana, Hatay, and Gökçeada were the most potent, influenced by bee ecotypes and protein content. PC3, PANC-1, and HeLa were the most sensitive cell lines, while Caco-2 and CCD-34Lu showed the highest resistance. In conclusion, the diverse venoms of A. mellifera in Türkiye exhibit significant dose-dependent cytotoxic and apoptotic effects, positioning the country as a valuable source in venom-based therapeutic research.

Insights from Traditional and Geometric Morphometric Analyses of Selected Apis Mellifera Ruttneri Colonies in Gozo and Malta

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

The Maltese Islands host an endemic honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera ruttneri. However, apiculture based on the imported foreign subspecies and strains greatly threatens the nativeA. m. ruttneri’s status through hybridisation. This study examined the morphometric attributes of selected A. m. ruttneri colonies (n=34) on Gozo, following several years of operation of a commercial queen rearing enterprise using foreign subspecies and strains. Additionally, colonies of A. m. ruttneri (n=21) from neighbouring Malta were also examined, where the importation of foreign honey bee colonies has been ongoing for a significantly longer time. Sampling was carried out between August and November 2021. Traditional and geometric morphometry were used for wing analysis, with separate discriminant analysis classification models applied to each approach. Results revealed clear hybridisation trends in both Gozitan and Maltese sub-populations of A. m. ruttneri. These findings align with and echo concerns regarding local honey bee decline. This study underscores the urgent need for more decisive and concrete actions to holistically protect the Maltese honey bee and its vital role in local apiculture.

Canary Honeys from Tenerife. Part 2: Composition of Extractive Compounds

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

The composition of extractive organic compounds of seven samples of Tenerife honey is reported here for the first time. In the extractive composition of the studied samples, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identified between 74 and 124 representatives of various classes of organic compounds, including aromatics, aliphatic acids, alcohols, and esters, as well as furofuran lignans, which are rarely found in honey. The chemical composition of extractives in the studied samples was highly specific: among 160 registered compounds, only forty were present in all seven samples. The most numerous groups, making the greatest contribution to the total ion current of the chromatograms, were formed by aromatic compounds, the main one being methyl syringate. The second most important group consisted of aliphatic acids, including a series of eleven even hydroxy acids C8‒C12, characteristic of royal jelly and largely responsible for its outstanding antimicrobial activity. The high content of compounds with documented biological activity suggests the high therapeutic potential of the studied Tenerife honey samples.

Effect of Ethanolic Propolis Extract on Gut Microbiota of Honey Bees (Apis Mellifera) Infected with Nosema spp.

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are essential pollinators but are facing numerous threats from such pathogens as Nosema spp., which disrupt gut function and colony health. The honey bee gut microbiota contributes to digestion, immunity, and defense; imbalances in this community can intensify disease outcomes. This study used a caged bee model to evaluate how propolis, a natural resinous compound produced by bees, impacts gut microbial composition, microbiota dynamics, Nosema infection severity, and survival. Propolis supplementation promoted the growth of beneficial bacterial genera, Bifidobacterium and Commensalibacter, while reducing the prevalence of opportunistic taxa. It also alleviated the negative influence of ethanol exposure on microbiota stability. Importantly, microbial diversity and structure were maintained more effectively in propolis-treated bees, even under infection stress. These findings highlight the potential of propolis as a natural therapeutic agent that supports microbial homeostasis and mitigates disease impacts in honey bees. By demonstrating the dual role of propolis in protecting both microbiota composition and host resilience, this research offers insights into sustainable strategies for enhancing bee health and combating colony losses.

Evaluating Toxicity of Commonly used Insecticides on Red Dwarf Honey Bee, Apis Florea F. (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

The extensive use of insecticides has raised concern regarding their toxicological risk to honey bee species, Apis florea (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Bees may come into contact with pesticides while foraging in the field to gather nectar and pollen from agricultural blooming plants, which cause the death of their workers. In this respect, the current study was conducted to evaluate the toxicity of certain commonly used insecticides against the population of A. florea. The concentrations tested in the residual bioassays were 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 ppm for abamectin, cypermethrin, imidacloprid, acetamiprid andpyriproxyfen, while for emamectin benzoate and carbosulfan, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 ppm. Each concentration was replicated three times. Our findings showed that the combination of emamectin benzoate and carbosulfan (LC50 0.54) was more toxic, followed by imidacloprid (LC50 0.70), acetamiprid (LC50 1.05), cypermethrin (LC50 1.57), pyriproxyfen (LC50 1.83) and abamectin (LC50 5.51). The present study shows the relative toxicity of various insecticides on A. florea besides the generalization that combinations of two insecticides (synergism) are more toxic to A. florea than a single insecticide. Therefore, combinations should be avoided for the management of insect pests.

Socio-Demographic Factors Influencing Adoption of Digital Technologies in Beekeeping

Thu, 19 Jun 2025 00:00:00 GMT

This study investigates the extent of digital technology adoption among Polish beekeepers and how socio-demographic factors influence this adoption. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 30 beekeeping experts and a survey of 949 randomly selected beekeepers. A Random Forest machine learning algorithm was employed to predict digital adoption, and SHAP values were applied to interpret the model’s output. The findings reveal that only 28.6% of beekeepers have adopted digital technologies. Experts highlighted several key themes related to adoption, including the perceived need for technology, types of technologies used, data collection practices, benefits for management and marketing, as well as associated risks and challenges. Among the socio-demographic factors, beekeeping experience had the strongest impact on digital technology adoption, followed by formal education in apiculture and the beekeeper’s age. These factors allowed the identification of three distinct beekeeper profiles: education- and engagement-driven beekeepers, experience-driven beekeepers, and highly experienced beekeepers. These insights can help beekeeping associations and policymakers promote the effective adoption of digital tools to support more sustainable and efficient apiary management.

Canary Honeys from Tenerife: 1. Composition of Volatile Components

Thu, 19 Jun 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Tenerife’s melliferous flora is characterised by the presence of a large number of endemic species and a distinct zonation of their growth, which determines the local production of unique varieties of honey not found in other parts of the world. For the first time, the composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in Tenerife honey was studied through the use of nine samples of monofloral (broom, tajinaste, tedera, relinchon, and barrilla) and four samples of multifloral honeys. The VOC composition of the studied samples contained 110 representatives of various classes of organic compounds identified by headspace microextraction in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS): terpenes, alkanes and alkenes, aliphatic and aromatic alcohols and acids, carbonyl compounds, as well as several S-, N- and Cl-containing substances. The chemical composition of the samples turned out to be highly specific; only twenty two compounds were detected in all nine samples. The distinct zonation of Tenerife’s honey flora is reflected in the VOC composition of the studied samples. For example, syringic acid hydrazide, a rare component of honey, is completely absent in honey from “high mountain” apiaries but is contained in noticeable quantities in honey from apiaries located at low altitudes. The presence of methyl 3,5-dimethoxybenzoate in Tenerife honeys, as well as some norterpenoids, indicates the likelihood of their high antioxidant and bactericidal activity.

Re-Insemination of Egg Laying Queen Honey Bees

Thu, 19 Jun 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Instrumental insemination of queen bees that have started laying eggs is used extremely rarely. It is one of the methods for obtaining diploid drones, but it is believed that the queen must stop laying eggs for at least five days before insemination, e.g. by placing her in a mesh cage in her colony, in order to deactivate the ovaries. According to unpublished information, re-insemination of queens with active ovaries causes their death. The aim of this work was to verify this information. The results of our experiments show that re-insemination does not affect the survivability of queens with active ovaries and can be performed without prior interruption of egg laying.

Effect of Autumn and Winter Brood Interruption on Queen Survivability and Spring Development of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Colonies with Use of Chmara Isolator

Thu, 19 Jun 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Queen isolation, the prevention of egg laying in autumn and winter, is beneficial in temperate climates. Brood rearing in autumn weakens colonies because feeding the larvae shortens the lives of bees. Workers which emerge during this time do not live until spring; moreover, winter stores are used for their rearing. The Chmara isolator consists of two queen excluders only 1 cm apart, which is why bees do not build a comb in it. The queen is isolated for more than three weeks; the absence of a sealed brood allows for successful control of the Varroa destructor. The aim of the study was to investigate queen mortality and spring development in bee colonies after the use of the Chmara isolator in the autumn and winter. All together, seventy-eight colonies were examined during a three-year period. In half of the colonies, the queens were closed in Chmara isolators for five or six months, from either September or October till March. Three queens died during the winter, one in an isolator and two in colonies without an isolator. Colonies, in which a Chmara isolator was used in autumn and winter, reared significantly more brood in spring compared to colonies without an isolator.