Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Total phenolic content and antioxidative activity values of honey and pollen samples
| Samples | Total phenolic content (mg GAE/g sample) | DPPH (SC50; mg/mL) | FRAP (mM TX/g sample) | Inhibition ratio (%) on LAP of the samples at 0.1 mg/mL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| R. ponticum honey | 0.04±0.01 | 64.002±2.49 | 0.409±0.01 | 14.695±1.25 |
| R. luteum honey | 0.22±0.02 | 35.634±1.95 | 2.025±0.05 | 8.550±0.05 |
| R. caucasicum honey | 0.92±0.15 | 16.652±0.80 | 3.588±0.06 | 12.563±0.70 |
| R. ponticum pollen | 25.81±1.85 | 1.054±0.85 | 6.177±0.03 | 9.368±1.03 |
| R. luteum pollen | 13.63±0.77 | 1.018±0.83 | 2.676±0.25 | 17.174±1.55 |
| R. caucasicum pollen | 23.10±1.09 | 0.496±0.01 | 4.162±0.30 | 37.158±2.25 |
Biochemical content and physicochemical parameters of honey samples
| Samples | R. luteum honey | R. ponticum honey | R. caucasicum honey | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Analysis | Result | Result | Result | Limits | Method |
| 1 | Fructose (g/100g) | 35.40 | 38.80 | 38.80 | - | IHC, 2009 |
| 2 | Glucose (g/100g) | 30.20 | 27.30 | 28.30 | - | IHC, 2009 |
| 3 | Fructose + Glucose (g/100g) | 65.60 | 66.10 | 67.10 | Minimum 60 | |
| 4 | Fructose / Glucose | 1.17 | 1.42 | 1.37 | 0.9–1.45 | |
| 5 | Sucrose (g/100g) | 1.70 | 3.40 | 4.30 | Maximum 5 | IHC, 2009 |
| 6 | Maltose (g/100g) | 1.70 | 1.80 | 0.80 | - | IHC, 2009 |
| 7 | Proline (mg/kg) | 550.9 | 248.8 | 923.0 | Minimum 300 | TS 13357 |
| 8 | Number of diastases | 10 | 8.0 | 15.5 | Minimum 8 | IHC, 2009 |
| 9 | Moisture (g/100g) | 21.61 | 22.35 | 22.31 | Maximum 20 | |
| 10 | Brix (g/100g) | 76.81 | 76.09 | 76.13 | - | |
| 11 | pH | 4.0 | 3.8 | 4.3 | - | |
| 12 | Electrical Conductivity (mS/cm) | 0.712 | 0.304 | 1.20 | Maximum 0.8 | |
| 13 | Free Acidity (meq/kg) | 24 | 15 | 24.0 | Maximum 50 | |
| 14 | HMF (mg/kg) | 0.60 | 0.50 | 0.90 | Maximum 40 | |
Zones of inhibition (mm) showing the antimicrobial activity of honey and pollen samples
| Samples | S.a. | B.c. | K.p. | E.c. | C.f. | L.m. | E.f. | C.a. | S.c. | P.a. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| R. luteum honey | 21.0±0.46 c | 19.6±0.17 d | 19.9±0.50 b | 23.5±0.41 b | 15.3±0.04 b | 23.2±0.76 c | 27.3±0.53 b | 25.4±0.28 b | 26.5±0.84 a | 14.4±0.54 c |
| R. luteum pollen | 22.5±0.53 bc | 23.5±0.71 c | 14.0±0.52 e | 17.8±0.66 d | 22.6±1.42 a | 23.3±1.20 c | 21.4±0.79 c | 25.9±0.36 ab | 26.9±0.61 a | 14.4±0.054 c |
| R. ponticum honey | 25.8±0.64 a | 25.9±1,00 abc | 17.4±0.29 c | 21.5±0.52 bc | 17.5±1.05 b | 22.5±0.31 c | 25.5±0.38 b | 27.2±0.31 a | 26.5±0.71 a | 15.7±0.34 bc |
| R. ponticum pollen | 24.1±0.90 ab | 25.6±0.64 abc | 22.6±0.34 a | 23.2±0.57 b | 15.2±1.33 b | 15.2±1.33 d | 26.1±0.80 b | 26.1±0.35 ab | 26.3±0.79 a | 16.8±0.21 bc |
| R. caucasicum honey | 25.0±0.32 a | 25.0±0.44 bc | 16.1±0.76 cd | 22.9±1.03 b | 17.3±1.14 b | 24.3±0.35 bc | 18.8±0.60 c | 27.0±0.31 a | 27.0±0.35 a | 16.4±0.61 bc |
| R. caucasicum pollen | 23.8±0.37 ab | 26.8±0.69 ab | 15.8±0.29 cde | 27.8±0.04 a | 14.4±0.43 b | 25.7±0.17 bc | 25.5±0.67 b | 26.2±0.30 ab | 26.6±0.60 a | 17.7±0.90 b |
| Ampicillin | 10.0±0.00 d | 26.5±0.29 ab | 15.3±0.09 de | 19.8±0.03 cd | 16.3±0.55 b | 27.5±0.37 b | 34.0±0.58 a | N.D. | N.D. | 28.6±0.23 a |
| Cephazolin | 7.0±0.00 e | 27.9±0.55 a | 16.2±0.30 cd | 18.8±0.17 d | 16.2±0.70 b | 32.6±0.38 a | 28.2±0.44 b | N.D. | N.D. | 27.9±0.57 a |
| Nystatin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 17.3±0.32 c | 17.7±0.55 b | N.D. |
| Solvent | 6.0±0.00 e | 6.0±0.00 e | 6.0±0.00 f | 6.0±0.00 e | 6.0±0.00 c | 6.0±0.00 e | 6.0±0.00 d | 6.0±0.00 d | 6.0±0.00 c | N.D. |
Acetylcholinesterase and butrylcholinesterase inhibition potentials (%) of the samples at 0_5 mg/mL concentration
| Samples | AChE | BuChE |
|---|---|---|
| R. ponticum honey | 11.781±1.50 | 0.099±0.02 |
| R. luteum honey | 50.330±2.65 | N.D. |
| R. caucasicum honey | 5.750±0.96 | 0.790±0.35 |
| R. ponticum pollen | 3.487±0.03 | 18.855±2.55 |
| R. luteum pollen | 8.671±0.85 | 7.601±1.00 |
| R. caucasicum pollen | 10.933±1.04 | 4.343±0.55 |
| Galantamine | 85.203±3.00 | 24.778±3.25 |
Minimum inhibition concentrations (MIC) expressed as μg /mL of honey and pollen samples to inhibit 100% of the microbial growth in vitro
| Samples | S.a. | B.c. | K.p. | E.c. | C.f. | L.m. | E.f. | C.a. | S.c. | P.a. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| R. luteum honey | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 1500≤ |
| R. luteum pollen | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 187.5≤ | 187.5≤ | 1500≤ |
| R ponticum honey | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 187.5≤ | 187.5≤ | 1500≤ |
| R ponticum pollen | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 187.5≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ |
| R. caucasicum honey | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 375≤ | 187.5≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ |
| R. caucasicum pollen | 375≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 750≤ | 750≤ | 750≤ | 375≤ | 187.5≤ | 187.5≤ | 750≤ |
| Ampicillin | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | N.D. | N.D. | 23.375 ≤ |
| Cephazolin | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | 11.687 ≤ | N.D. | N.D. | 23.375 ≤ |
| Nystatin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 23.375 ≤ | 23.375 ≤ | N.D. |
| Solvent | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
The amount of phenolic compounds (mg/g sample) in honey and pollen samples
| Standards | R. luteum honey | R. ponticum honey | R. caucasicum honey | R. luteum pollen | R. ponticum pollen | R. caucasicum pollen |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gallic acid | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Protocateuic acid | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| p-OH Benzoic acid | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Catechin | 3.76 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Caffeic acid | N.D. | 6.33 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Syringic acid | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 21.88 |
| Epicatechin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| p-Coumaric acid | 2.30 | 3.93 | 3.31 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Ferulic acid | N.D. | 6.07 | 8.26 | N.D. | 38.19 | N.D. |
| Rutin | N.D. | N.D. | 40.47 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Myerecetin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 506.96 | 497.08 | 624.27 |
| Resveratrol | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Daidzein | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
| Luteolin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 16.91 | 207.61 | N.D. |
| t-Cinnamic acid | 0.57 | 0.86 | 1.08 | 14.59 | 63.93 | 34.89 |
| Hesperetin | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 39.83 |
| Chyrisin | 16.81 | 27.44 | 20.16 | N.D. | N.D. | 112.89 |
| Pinocembrin | 2.31 | 4.11 | 2.71 | N.D. | N.D. | 43.90 |
| Phenylethyl caffeate | 3.70 | 4.84 | 2.34 | N.D. | N.D. | 63.17 |