Figure 1
Figure 2
Effects of median school fees on child migration, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Median school fee (Ln) | −0.428** (0.169) | −0.168*** (0.057) | −0.160** (0.068) |
| Head’s age | 0.004 (0.004) | 0.004 (0.003) | 0.004 (0.003) |
| Head is female | 0.092 (0.058) | 0.025 (0.045) | 0.025 (0.045) |
| Head completed primary school | 0.013 (0.036) | −0.013 (0.030) | −0.012 (0.029) |
| Head completed middle school | 0.009 (0.028) | 0.024 (0.028) | 0.023 (0.027) |
| Head is working | −0.115** (0.057) | −0.112* (0.060) | |
| Head is self-employed | 0.281*** (0.032) | 0.279*** (0.033) | |
| Migrated within province | 0.133*** (0.048) | 0.123*** (0.038) | |
| Growth rate of student–teacher ratio | −0.014** (0.007) | −0.013 (0.008) | |
| Housing price in 2007 (’000 yuan) | −0.004 (0.008) | ||
| Constant | 3.413*** (1.233) | 1.500*** (0.406) | 1.467*** (0.464) |
| Observations | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.378 | 0.378 | 0.378 |
| Original province FE | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Industry FE | No | Yes | Yes |
| RMSE | 0.493 | 0.432 | 0.432 |
| Prob > χ2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| First-stage F statistics | 8.273 | 21.165 | 15.146 |
| Non-instrumented regressions | −0.141** (0.062) | −0.072** (0.034) | −0.042 (0.042) |
Effects of median school fees on the numbers of children brought to the city, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Median school fee (Ln) | −0.536** | −0.211** | −0.205** |
| Observations | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.458 | 0.458 | 0.458 |
| HH’s employment variables and industry FE | No | Yes | Yes |
| Growth rate of student–teacher ratio | No | Yes | Yes |
| Housing prices in 2007 | No | No | Yes |
| RMSE | 0.493 | 0.432 | 0.432 |
| Prob > χ2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| First-stage F statistics | 8.273 | 21.165 | 15.146 |
Effects of median school fees on the gender of children brought to the city, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Median school fee (Ln) | −0.417 | −0.086 | −0.082 |
| Observations | 662 | 662 | 662 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.377 | 0.377 | 0.377 |
| HH’s employment variables and industry FE | No | Yes | Yes |
| Growth rate of student–teacher ratio | No | Yes | Yes |
| Housing prices in 2007 | No | No | Yes |
| RMSE | 0.491 | 0.420 | 0.420 |
| Prob > χ2 | 0.040 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| First-stage F statistics | 6.926 | 19.696 | 12.374 |
Median school fees and child migration during the economic crisis, China 2009
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Median school fee (Ln), (OLS) | −0.226*** | −0.148*** | −0.121*** |
| Median school fee (Ln), (IV) | −0.449*** | −0.440 | −0.408 |
| Observations | 1,005 | 1,005 | 1,005 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.305 | 0.305 | 0.305 |
| HH’s employment variables and industry (FE) | No | Yes | Yes |
| Growth rate of student–teacher ratio | No | Yes | Yes |
| Housing prices in 2008 | No | No | Yes |
| First-stage F statistics | 22.310 | 3.371 | 1.605 |
Child migration and well-being, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Underweight | Overweight | Child health | |
| Migrated with parent(s) | 0.023 (0.252) | −0.214** (0.105) | 0.263 (0.292) |
| Child’s age | 0.001 (0.007) | −0.017*** (0.005) | 0.002 (0.007) |
| Child’s gender | 0.065*** (0.023) | −0.020* (0.012) | 0.038 (0.032) |
| Head’s age | −0.007 (0.006) | 0.003 (0.002) | −0.004 (0.005) |
| Head is female | 0.032 (0.044) | −0.001 (0.025) | −0.062 (0.063) |
| Head’s height | −0.003 (0.003) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.006 (0.004) |
| Head completed primary school | −0.070** (0.028) | −0.016 (0.026) | 0.108*** (0.041) |
| Head completed middle school | 0.020 (0.033) | −0.000 (0.022) | −0.006 (0.039) |
| Constant | 1.293*** (0.436) | 0.220 (0.209) | 3.298*** (0.780) |
| Observations | 1,556 | 1,556 | 1,673 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.504 | 0.084 | 4.339 |
| Original province FE | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| RMSE | 0.495 | 0.287 | 0.682 |
| Prob > χ2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| First-stage F statistics | 20.901 | 20.901 | 23.231 |
Alternative measures of school fees and other robustness checks, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| School fees | Tuition fees | School fees | School fees (’000 yuan) | School fees, urban | ||
| Median | Median | p25 | p75 | Median | Median | |
| Panel A | ||||||
| School fees | −0.160** | −0.129** | −0.167*** | −0.253** | −0.107** | −0.094** |
| Observations | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 | 1,349 |
| Mean of dependent variable | 0.378 | 0.378 | 0.378 | 0.378 | 0.378 | 0.378 |
| First-stage F statistics | 15.146 | 15.807 | 8.150 | 11.610 | 13.256 | 7.229 |
Summary statistics from the RUMiC sample, China 2008
| Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Mean | SD | Max | Min | |
| Household characteristics | |||||
| Head’s age | 1,349 | 36.77 | 4.99 | 62 | 20 |
| Head is female | 1,349 | 0.26 | 0.44 | 1 | 0 |
| Head completed primary school | 1,349 | 0.82 | 0.39 | 1 | 0 |
| Head completed middle school | 1,349 | 0.29 | 0.46 | 1 | 0 |
| Head lives with spouse | 1,349 | 0.65 | 0.48 | 1 | 0 |
| Head lives with child | 1,349 | 0.38 | 0.49 | 1 | 0 |
| Number of school-age children living with head | 1,349 | 0.46 | 0.65 | 3 | 0 |
| Migrated within province | 1,349 | 0.57 | 0.50 | 1 | 0 |
| Remittances sent out for educational purposes (’000 yuan) | 1,349 | 1.10 | 2.23 | 18 | 0 |
| Household per capita income (’000 yuan) | 1,349 | 1.34 | 1.01 | 12 | 0 |
| Head is working | 1,349 | 0.97 | 0.16 | 1 | 0 |
| Head is self-employed | 1,349 | 0.36 | 0.48 | 1 | 0 |
| Destination city characteristics | |||||
| Growth rate of student–teacher ratio | 1,349 | 1.02 | 2.19 | 6.56 | −2.58 |
| Education spending shocks (HP filter, lagged 1 year) | 1,349 | −0.29 | 0.93 | 1.05 | −2.66 |
| Education spending shocks (linear filter, lagged 1 year) | 1,349 | −0.46 | 1.27 | 1.02 | −3.82 |
| Education spending shocks (HP filter, lagged 2 years) | 1,349 | −0.64 | 0.96 | 0.39 | −3.50 |
| Housing prices in 2007 (’000 yuan) | 1,349 | 5.60 | 2.62 | 13.37 | 2.29 |
| Mean school fees (in migrant sample) (Ln) | 1,349 | 2475.05 | 887.85 | 5720.00 | 954.17 |
| Median school fees (in migrant sample) (Ln) | 1,349 | 1758.46 | 699.62 | 3130.00 | 650.00 |
| Coastal city | 1,349 | 0.47 | 0.50 | 1 | 0 |
| Guangzhou | 1,349 | 0.07 | 0.25 | 1 | 0 |
| Dongguan | 1,349 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 1 | 0 |
| Shenzhen | 1,349 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 1 | 0 |
| Shanghai | 1,349 | 0.11 | 0.31 | 1 | 0 |
| Nanjing | 1,349 | 0.06 | 0.24 | 1 | 0 |
| Wuxi | 1,349 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 1 | 0 |
| Hangzhou | 1,349 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 1 | 0 |
| Ningbo | 1,349 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 1 | 0 |
| Zhengzhou | 1,349 | 0.07 | 0.26 | 1 | 0 |
| Luoyang | 1,349 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 1 | 0 |
| Hefei | 1,349 | 0.09 | 0.29 | 1 | 0 |
| Bengbu | 1,349 | 0.06 | 0.23 | 1 | 0 |
| Chongqing | 1,349 | 0.09 | 0.29 | 1 | 0 |
| Wuhan | 1,349 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 1 | 0 |
| Chengdu | 1,349 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 1 | 0 |