Life satisfaction among police officers in Nigeria has emerged as an important topic of research interest in the past few years. This focus reflects growing public concern about the challenges facing the police organization and its personnel. The Nigeria Police Force grapples with issues such as manpower shortages (Oikhala, 2020) and inadequate funding (Alemika and Chukwuma, 2020). Furthermore, the strained relationship between the police and the public, exacerbated by reports of corruption, brutality and extortion, has persisted for decades. These challenges are further heightened by widespread insecurity and social unrest, placing tremendous pressure on police officers. The cumulative effect of these stressors often results in excessive workloads, negatively impacting both job performance and overall wellbeing. Life satisfaction, a key component of subjective wellbeing, is likely to be adversely affected under such conditions.
Life satisfaction refers to the subjective evaluation of one’s own life in terms of self-perceived positive outcomes (Bramhankar, et al., 2023). It forms the cognitive dimension of subjective wellbeing and plays a crucial role in influencing various aspects of work and personal life. Higher life satisfaction has been linked to improved productivity (Kosec, et al., 2022), enhanced mental health (Saldivia, et al., 2023), better teamwork (Nicoletti, et al., 2021) and stronger work–life balance (Best and Chinta, 2021). When employees, including police officers, experience high life satisfaction, their wellbeing and job performance tend to improve, benefiting both their professional and personal lives.
The wellbeing of police officers is especially important, given the high-stress environments they operate in, which expose them to unpredictable workloads and traumatic experiences. Their wellbeing directly impacts public safety and service delivery, emphasizing the need for research on factors that influence life satisfaction in this context. While research on life satisfaction has focused extensively on health workers, academics and bank employees, limited studies have explored this construct among police officers, despite the unique demands of their profession. The tasks, responsibilities and role expectations of police officers differ significantly from other occupations, making it essential to investigate their life satisfaction within this specific context.
Several personal and organizational factors, such as perceived workload and organizational support, are known to influence life satisfaction. Perceived workload, encompassing mental, physical and temporal demands, can diminish wellbeing, while organizational support may buffer the negative impact of these demands. Dispositional optimism, which reflects an individual’s tendency to expect positive outcomes, may further moderate these relationships by enhancing resilience and helping officers leverage available support. However, there is limited research on the conditional indirect (moderated mediating) roles of organizational support and dispositional optimism in shaping life satisfaction.
Past studies have examined related constructs, such as the relationship between life satisfaction and employee engagement (Akanni, 2022), the impact of social support on life satisfaction (Wu, et al., 2022) and the psychosocial effects of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on wellbeing (Itasanmi, et al., 2020). Similarly, studies have explored the moderating role of dispositional optimism in predicting positive outcomes (Olasupo, et al., 2021). However, a gap remains in understanding how organizational support and dispositional optimism jointly influence the relationship between workload and life satisfaction, particularly in high-stress occupations like policing.
This study aims to address this gap by examining how perceived workload predicts life satisfaction among police officers and how organizational support moderates this relationship. In addition, it investigates the role of dispositional optimism as a moderator in the indirect effects of workload on life satisfaction. The findings will contribute to the growing body of research on police wellbeing by identifying key factors that influence officers’ life satisfaction and providing insights to guide policies aimed at improving their wellbeing and performance.
Perceived workload refers to the cognitive, physical and emotional demands required to complete multiple tasks (Mokhtarinia, 2024). Excessive workload often leads to frustration, stress and depression, which undermine psychological wellbeing (Kelloway, et al., 2023). Research by Kumar, et al. (2021) found that COVID-19–related stressors, including role overload, reduced life satisfaction by heightening distress and impairing job performance. Similarly, Akca and Tepe-Küçükoğlu (2020) reported that psychological distress increases when workload exceeds employees' capacity, which negatively affects mental health and performance. Studies have also highlighted that workload-related stress extends beyond the workplace, affecting employees' family relationships and reducing job commitment (Ukwadinamor and Oduguwa, 2020). Given the well-established link between workload, stress and life satisfaction (Hou, et al., 2022), it is reasonable to predict that higher perceived workload will directly diminish life satisfaction. Thus, we propose that:
H1: Perceived workload will predict life satisfaction.
In addition, workload-related stress can influence perceptions of how much support an organization offers to its employees. When employees feel overwhelmed by excessive tasks, they may view their organization as unsupportive (Ogungbamila, 2023). This provides the basis for the second hypothesis
H2: Perceived workload will predict organizational support.
Organizational support, defined as the extent to which employees feel their contributions are recognized and their wellbeing is valued by their organization (Emejulu and Ejuma, 2020), can buffer the negative effects of workload by fostering a supportive environment. When employees perceive meaningful support, especially during high-pressure situations, they are more likely to feel satisfied with their roles and experience enhanced wellbeing (Ikon and Nwoye, 2019). Research highlights the positive influence of organizational support on various employee outcomes. For instance, Ogungbamila (2023) found that organizational support significantly enhanced the psychological wellbeing of police officers, while Babalola, et al. (2020) observed greater work commitment among librarians with higher levels of perceived support. These findings suggest that organizational support does more than improve individual wellbeing. It also serves as a coping mechanism, helping employees manage workload-related stress. Thus, we state that organizational support not only contributes to life satisfaction, but also cushions the negative effects of perceived workload on wellbeing. Having established that perceived workload predicted life satisfaction, we hypothesize that:
H3: Organizational support will predict life satisfaction. H4: Organizational support will cushion the negative effect of perceived workload on life satisfaction.
Dispositional optimism refers to the general expectation that positive outcomes will occur, even in challenging circumstances (Segerstrom, 2023). This belief has been found to enhance resilience and foster better psychological outcomes at work (Lee, et al., 2021; Rincón-Uribe, et al., 2021). Optimism may play a pivotal role in helping employees cope with high workload by allowing them to manage stressful situations and effectively leverage organizational support. In a related study, Olasupo, et al. (2021) found that dispositional optimism moderated the relationship between social connectedness and life satisfaction, improving emotional outcomes. This aligns with evidence that optimism moderates various work-related outcomes (Majeed, et al., 2021). Based on these insights, the current study proposes that dispositional optimism will moderate the buffering effect of organizational support on the workload–life satisfaction relationship. Specifically, officers with higher optimism are likely to benefit more from organizational support, enhancing their life satisfaction. It is thus hypothesized that:
H5: The cushioning effect of organizational support in the negative association between perceived workload and life satisfaction would be higher among police officers with low and moderate dispositional optimism.
Theoretically, this study enhances the understanding of desire-fulfilment theory, which is regarded as one of the leading theories of subjective wellbeing in contemporary discourse. According to this theory, the fulfilment of an individual's desires contributes to happiness, regardless of the amount of pleasure experienced. When applied to life satisfaction among police officers, it is reasonable to assume that, like all individuals, police personnel have their own life desires and aspirations. Therefore, fulfilling these desires is likely to promote life satisfaction, while failure to do so may lead to dissatisfaction. Furthermore, this theory serves as a foundation for the research hypotheses outlined above.
An ethical approval was secured for the study from the Health Research Ethics Committee of the Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, with reference number: IPH/OAU/12/2287. The participants comprised serving police officers selected from the Osun State Police Command, Nigeria. A total of 417 officers were recruited using a combination of simple random sampling and convenience sampling. In the first stage, simple random sampling was employed to ensure each of the eight police area commands had an equal chance of being selected. Four commands were randomly chosen to ensure geographical representation. Within these selected commands, convenience sampling was used to recruit participants who were readily available and willing to participate, given the operational constraints of police duties. This approach ensured a representative sample from the population of 5,954 officers, balancing both randomness and practical feasibility.
The sampling procedure incorporated Yamane’s formula to determine the sample size and adjusted for potential non-responses, enhancing the reliability of the findings. Participants were approached for their consent to partake in the study, with a commitment to ensuring the utmost confidentiality and anonymity. Subsequently, questionnaires were distributed to consenting police officers at selected area commands in the state. Participants were given the option to take the questionnaire home and return it the following day to enable them to have enough time for filling the questionnaire.
Only officers from the rank of Chief Superintendent of Police down to constable participated in the study. Those above these ranks were excluded from the study because they are high ranking officers who are mainly engaged with managerial duties. After a 3-week data collection period, 384 returned questionnaires were deemed usable. The participants’ characteristics are provided in Table 1.
Participants’ characteristics
(Source: Authors’ own research)
| Characteristics | Category | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Sex | Male | 195 |
| Marital status | Married | 273 |
| Religious affiliation | Christian | 260 |
| Number of children | One to three | 299 |
| Ethnicity | Hausa | 18 |
| Educational qualification | Primary/secondary | 138 |
Note: ND=National Diploma; HND=Higher National Diploma; NCE=Nigeria Certificate in Education
The distribution of respondents by sex indicates the participation of 195 males and 189 female police officers in the study. Regarding marital status, 273 were married, 63 were single, 45 were separated, and three were divorced. Religious affiliation showed that 260 identified as Christians and 124 as Muslims. Concerning the number of children, 299 reported having between one and three children, while 85 reported having four or more children. Ethnicity-wise, 18 identified as Hausa, 48 as Igbo, 199 as Yoruba, while 119 belonged to other minor groups classified as ‘others’. In terms of educational qualifications, 138 held secondary school certificates, 155 had NCE/ND, 83 had B.Sc./HND, six had master’s degrees, and two had Ph.Ds.
Data on life satisfaction were gathered through the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), a five-item scale devised by Diener, et al. (1985). Sample of the items on the scale reads as follows: ‘In most ways my life is close to my ideal’ and ‘I am satisfied with life’. The response format spanned from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and the study exhibited a Cronbach's alpha of 0.70.
Information on perceived workload was collected using the Police Perceived Workload Scale (PPWS), adapted from the Physician Mental Workload Scale (Lu, et al., 2019).
Consent and approval to adapt the scale were obtained. In the course of adaptation, some items were rephrased to suit police officers, and the response format was changed to a 5-point Likert scale (1- never to 5- a great deal). Sample items included: ‘How mentally demanding are the tasks you perform in the course of your official duty?’. The adapted scale underwent a validation study, resulting in a reliable Cronbach's alpha of 0.67.
Organisational support was assessed using the eight-item Perceived Organisational Support (POS) scale developed by Eisenberger, et al. (1986). The samples of the items read as follows: ‘My organization strongly considers my goals and values’ and ‘My organization really cares about my wellbeing’. The scale was rated on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Cronbach’s alpha of 0.53 was found for this study.
Dispositional optimism of police officers was measured with the three-item subscale that measures optimism in the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) developed by Scheier, et al. (1994). Sample statements: ‘In uncertain times, I usually expect the best’. The scale was rated on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from 0 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. A Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 was found for this study. Table 2 shows the reliability of the scales used in the study.
Reliability coefficient for scales in the validation study
(Source: Authors’ own research)
| Scales | Number of Items | Cronbach’s alpha | Correlation between forms | Spearman-Brown coefficient | Guttman split-half coefficient |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS) | 5 | 0.70 | 0.15 | 0.26 | 0.21 |
| Police Perceived Workload scale | 12 | 0.67 | 0.54 | 0.70 | 0.70 |
| Perceived Organizational Support | 8 | 0.53 | 0.22 | 0.36 | 0.36 |
Before hypotheses testing, data were first screened to determine accuracy and appropriateness for testing the hypotheses, and missing values were thoroughly checked in the data set for the study variables. In addition, bivariate correlations were computed to understand the strength and direction of relationships among the study variables. Multiple regression analysis, simple linear regression analysis and PROCESS Macro Vs. 4.2 were used to analyze the data generated for this study.
Table 3 shows that mental demand had significant negative prediction on life satisfaction among police officers (β = -0.50, t = -10.35, 95% CI = [1.07, 0.1.58]), but physical demand (β = -0.04, t = -0.90, 95% CI = [-0.36, 0.13]), temporal demand (β = -0.04, t = -0.82, 95% CI = [-0.29, 0.12]), perceived risk (β = 0.08, t = 1.89, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.43]) and performance (β = 0.04, t = 1.16, 95% CI = [-0.07, 0.28]) did not predict life satisfaction among police officers. The study also revealed that frustration level had significant negative prediction on life satisfaction among police officers (β = -0.17, t = - 4.55, 95% CI = [0.25, 0.65]). The study found that organizational support positively predicted life satisfaction among police officers (β = 0.25, t = 6.41, 95% CI = [0.14, 0.27]). Furthermore, there was a significant joint predictive role of perceived workload dimensions (mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, perceived risk, frustration level and performance) and organizational support (F [7, 376] = 0.72; R2 = 0.53, P < 0.05). The perceived workload dimensions and organizational support yielded a coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.72 and multiple correlations square (R2 = 0.53). This shows that 53% of the total variance of life satisfaction was accounted for by the linear contributions of perceived workload dimensions (mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, perceived risk, frustration level and performance) and organizational support.
Multiple regression analysis of life satisfaction by perceived workload dimensions and organizational support
(Source: Authors’ own research)
| Predictor variables | Standardised coefficients | t | P-value | 95.0% Confidence interval (CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | Lower bound | Upper bound | |||
| Mental demand | -0.50 | -10.35 | 0.01 | 1.07 | 1.58 |
| Physical demand | -0.04 | -0.90 | 0.36 | -0.36 | 0.13 |
| Temporal demand | -0.04 | -0.82 | 0.41 | -0.29 | 0.12 |
| Perceived risk | 0.08 | 1.89 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.35 |
| Frustration level | -0.17 | -4.55 | 0.01 | 0.25 | 0.65 |
| Performance | 0.04 | 1.16 | 0.24 | 0.07 | 0.28 |
| Organizational support | 0.25 | 6.41 | 0.01 | 0.14 | 0.27 |
| R = 0.72, R2 = 0.53, F(7,376) = 60.64 | |||||
The results in Table 4 show that the standardized indirect effect of perceived workload on life satisfaction via organizational support was significant (β = -0.05, SE = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.14]). This means that organizational support mitigated the impact of perceived workload on life satisfaction.
Mediating effect of organizational support in the perceived workload and life satisfaction link
(Source: Authors’ own research)
| Model pathways | β | SE | P-value | BC 95% CI | - |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| - | - | - | - | Lower limit | Upper limit |
| - | - | - | - | - | - |
| PW → OS→ LS | -0.05 | 0.01 | <0.05 | 0.05 | 0.14 |
Note: PW = perceived workload, OS = organizational support, LS = life satisfaction
The results in Table 5 showed that dispositional optimism moderated the association between perceived workload and life satisfaction through organizational support (β = -0.01, SE = 0.00; t = -5.74, P < 0.01). In addition, the conditional mediating effect of organizational support on life satisfaction through dispositional optimism was significant for police officers who have low (β = 0.06, SE = 0.01, 95% CI [0.03, 0.26]) and moderate (β = 0.00, SE = 0.01, 95% CI [-0.01, 0.06]) dispositional optimism. The index of the moderated mediation was also significant (β = -0.08, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.01, -0.00]).
Moderated mediation of life satisfaction among police officers, tested using PROCESS Macro Vs 4.2 for IBM-SPSS version 25
(Source: Authors’ own research)
| Models | β | SE | t | P-value | BC 95% CI | - |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MV model | - | - | - | - | Lower limit | Upper limit |
| Constants | -2.28 | 2.76 | -0.86 | 0.389 | -7.82 | 3.05 |
| PW | 0.68 | 0.09 | -7.44 | 0.001 | 0.50 | 0.86 |
| DO | 1.89 | 0.32 | 5.83 | 0.001 | 1.25 | 2.52 |
| PW × DO | -0.05 | 0.00 | -5.74 | 0.001 | -0.06 | -0.03 |
| - | - | F (3, 360) = 36.75 R = 47, R2 = 0.22 | - | - | - | - |
| Dependent model | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Constant | -3.96 | 1.88 | -2.10 | 0.036 | -7.66 | -0.26 |
| PW | 0.33 | 0.06 | 5.03 | 0.001 | 0.20 | 0.46 |
| OS | 0.16 | 0.03 | 4.76 | 0.001 | 0.09 | 0.23 |
| DO | 0.85 | 0.23 | 3.71 | 0.001 | -0.40 | 1.23 |
| PW × DO | -0.01 | 0.06 | -2.43 | 0.016 | -0.02 | -0.00 |
| - | - | F (4, 379) =36.75 R = 68, R2 = 0.46 | - | - | - | - |
| Moderated mediation effect | β | SE | - | - | Lower limit | Upper limit |
| Low | 0.06 | 0.01 | - | - | 0.03 | 0.26 |
| High | 0.00 | 0.01 | - | - | 0.01 | 0.02 |
| Index of moderated mediation | -0.08 | 0.02 | - | - | 0.01 | -0.00 |
Note: BC = bias corrected, β = beta, SE= standard error, CI = confidence interval, PW = perceived workload, DO = dispositional optimism, OS = organisational support
The moderated mediation graph in Fig 1 showed that the indirect effect of perceived workload on life satisfaction via organizational support only occurred when optimism of police officers was low and moderate. However, the moderating effect of optimism did not occur when police officers had high optimism.
Moderated mediation model of life satisfaction
(Source: Authors’ own research)
This study investigated the predictive roles of perceived workload, organizational support and dispositional optimism on life satisfaction among police officers in Osun state, Nigeria. It also ascertained the mediating role of organizational support in the link between perceived workload and life satisfaction and also determined the conditional indirect effect of dispositional optimism in the link between perceived workload and life satisfaction through organizational support. Finding indicates that among police officers, higher levels of mental demand are associated with a significant negative impact on life satisfaction. However, physical demand, temporal demand, perceived risk and performance did not show a significant predictive relationship with life satisfaction.
In addition, the study found that a higher frustration level is significantly associated with lower life satisfaction among police officers.
This suggests that when police officers perceive their job tasks and responsibilities as mentally exhausting, frustrating and hindering optimal performance, they are likely to experience lower life satisfaction.
This finding aligns with a study by Carranza-Esteban, et al. (2022), which identified psychological distress and workload as significant predictors of life satisfaction. The plausible reasons for the findings point to the existing challenges and stressors associated with police work in Nigeria, as well as the impact of individual and organizational factors on officers' psychological wellbeing. Recognizing and addressing these factors can be essential for improving their overall life satisfaction and wellbeing.
Findings from the study also confirmed that organizational support significantly predicted life satisfaction among police officers. This implies that the extent to which officers perceive support from their organization has a notable impact on their overall life satisfaction. Essentially, when police officers feel valued and supported by their organization, it positively contributes to their overall satisfaction with life. These findings align with previous studies (Hakkak, et al., 2014; Karatepe, 2012; Burke, 2003) showing a positive correlation between increased organizational support and higher levels of employee satisfaction. These findings are consistent with the conclusions of Spence, et al. (2012), highlighting the crucial role of organizational support in fostering employee satisfaction, thereby enhancing organizational commitment and the achievement of organizational goals. The results of this study, along with numerous others, underscore the importance of organizations demonstrating support, care and concern for their workforce.
Findings from the fourth hypothesis were confirmed. Organizational support significantly mediates the relationship between perceived workload and life satisfaction among police officers. This result underscores the influential role of organizational support in shaping how officers' perceived workload impacts their overall life satisfaction. In alignment with this finding, previous studies (Isa and Ibrahim, 2020; Ogunyemi, et al., 2020; Zheng and Wu, 2018; Ogungbamila, 2023) have consistently affirmed the mediating role of organizational support. Essentially, when officers feel supported by their organization, it acts as a mitigating factor, alleviating the potential negative effects of a high perceived workload on their wellbeing and professional contentment. This emphasizes the crucial role of organizational support in buffering the stressors associated with demanding workloads, ultimately contributing to higher levels of life satisfaction among police officers. Importantly, this mediation effect indicates that the relationship between perceived workload and life satisfaction is not direct, but is substantially influenced by the perceived level of organizational support. This underscores the significance of fostering a supportive work environment to counteract the adverse effects of workload on employees' overall life satisfaction.
In agreement with the sixth hypothesis, our findings showed that dispositional optimism plays a significant role in shaping the impact of perceived workload on life satisfaction, mediated by organizational support among police officers. The moderation analysis revealed that dispositional optimism moderates the relationship between perceived workload and life satisfaction through organizational support. The conditional mediating effect demonstrated that organizational support mediates the relationship between dispositional optimism and life satisfaction, particularly for officers with low to moderate optimism levels, mitigating the negative impact of workload. These results align with previous studies (Akanni, 2022; Olasupo, et al., 2021; Banerjee, 2012) on dispositional optimism moderating stress-related relationships and underscore the importance of considering dispositional optimism in understanding how workload and organizational support influence life satisfaction among police officers. The findings provide valuable insights for police organizations and policymakers seeking to enhance the wellbeing of their personnel.
Based on the findings of this study, we conclude that perceived workload, specifically mental demand and frustration level dimensions, predicts life satisfaction among police officers, while physical demand, temporal demand, perceived risk and performance do not show significant predictive relationships. Furthermore, organizational support not only independently predicts life satisfaction, but also mitigates the adverse impact of perceived workload on life satisfaction. The research underscores the significant moderating role of dispositional optimism in the relationship between perceived workload and life satisfaction through organizational support, particularly at low and moderate levels of dispositional optimism. Overall, these findings emphasize the intricate interplay of these factors and highlight the crucial roles of organizational support and dispositional optimism in improving the wellbeing of police officers.
While this study contributes significantly to knowledge, it is imperative to acknowledge its limitations. The reliance on self-report measures introduces potential biases, limiting the in-depth comprehension of the studied variables. The cross-sectional design, capturing data at a single point, restricts insights into dynamic relationships between variables and hinders causal inferences. Results may be influenced by the exclusive focus on police officers in Osun State, reducing generalisability of findings to other regions. Future research on police officers' life satisfaction should explore alternative methodologies and incorporate other personal and work-related variables such as work–life balance, job security, workplace relationships, organizational culture, job control/autonomy, social support, workplace safety, job insecurity, job fit, diversity and inclusion and work engagement either as direct or indirect predictors of life satisfaction among police officers. Expanding studies to diverse geographical locations and participant cohorts would enhance the robustness of future investigations.
The study’s findings underscore the need for the Nigerian police to foster a supportive work environment to buffer the negative effects of mental stress and frustration on officers' wellbeing. Police leadership should make policies and interventions that promote organizational support a priority, such as improved welfare packages, counselling services and recognition programs. More so, fostering a culture that encourages dispositional optimism through training and support programs can enhance resilience among officers to better cope with workload pressures. By addressing these issues, police authorities can improve officers’ life satisfaction, leading to higher motivation, job performance and organizational commitment, ultimately enhancing public safety and service delivery.