Evaluation of pomological traits and kernel quality in almond cultivars suitable for commercial cultivation in Central Europe

Ivo Ondrášek; Eliška Zezulová; Erika Slámová; Tomáš Nečas

doi:10.2478/fhort-2026-0007

.blurhash-client-img { display: none !important; }

Evaluation of pomological traits and kernel quality in almond cultivars suitable for commercial cultivation in Central Europe

Folia Horticulturae

AHEAD OF PRINT

By: Ivo Ondrášek , Eliška Zezulová , Erika Slámová and Tomáš Nečas

Open Access

|Jun 2026

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the phaenological, pomological, and nutritional traits of various almond cultivars based on multi-year observations. The results revealed significant differences among cultivars in flowering and ripening times, stone and kernel weight, shell hardness, and sensory characteristics. The earliest cultivar in terms of both flowering and ripening was 'Zora', while 'Ferrastar' and 'Ferragnes' flowered the latest. 'Gersonskaja' exhibited the highest stone weight (8.8 ± 3.1 g) and shell hardness and 'Suzanne' the softest shell. The highest kernel weight was recorded in Prunus amygdalus var. tenera (1.6 ± 0.1 g). All evaluated cultivars had sweet kernels, except for the rootstock 'MN-VA-1', which was rated as semi-sweet. 'Ferrastar' received the highest palatability rating, while 'Ferragnes' had the lowest, though still favourable, score. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis revealed two main cultivar groups, with 'Gersonskaja' and 'Zora' being the most distinct. The chemical composition of the kernels showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). 'Genco' exhibited the highest fat content (61.79 ± 0.01% FW), while 'Famosa' had the highest soluble protein content (14.16 ± 0.79% FW). 'Ferragnes' stood out for its highest levels of phenolic compounds (142.09 ± 0.39 mg) (GAE·100 g⁻¹ FW), flavonoids (85.11 ± 0.35 mg (CE)·100 g⁻¹ FW), and antioxidant capacity (AC) (148.9 ± 1.7 mg) (TE·100 g⁻¹ FW). PCA of the nutritional data confirmed the similarity between 'Ferragnes' and P. amygdalus var. tenera in terms of secondary metabolite content, whereas 'Gersonskaja' showed the lowest values across most parameters.

References

Abe, L. T., Lajolo, F. M., and Genovese, M. I. (2010). Comparison of phenol content and antioxidant capacity of nuts. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 30 (Suppl. 1), 254–259, http://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20612010000500038.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ahmed, I. A. M, Aljuhaimi, F., Özcan, M. M., Uslu, N., and Albakry, Z. (2024). The effect of fermentation on the oil content, fatty acid profile and bioactive compounds of fresh and fermented almond kernels. Journal of Oleo Science, 73(12), 1447–1455, https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.ess24151.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Asad, M., and Malik, A. (2024). Almond varieties: nutritional and chemical composition and health benefits and culinary application. In R. A. Marc, C. C. Mureşan and A. N. Postolache (Eds.), Nut consumption and its usefulness in the modern world (pp. 39–61). London, UK: IntechOpen, https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1005139.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Banjanin, T., Nikolic, D., Uslu, N., Gökmen, F., Özcan, M. M., Milatovic, D., Zec, G., Boškov, Đ, and Dursun, N. (2021). Physicochemical properties, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and mineral contents of 12 Serbia regional and commercial almond cultivars. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 45(1), e15015, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.15015.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Barreca, D., Nabavi, S. M., Sureda, A., Rasekhian, M., Raciti, R., Silva, A. S., Annunziata, G., Arnone, A., Tenore, G. C., Süntar, İ, and Mandalari, G. (2020). Almonds (Prunus dulcis Mill. D. A. Webb): A source of nutrients and health-promoting compounds. Nutrients, 12(3), 672, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030672.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Barreira, J. C., Ferreira, I. C., Oliveira, M. B. P., and Pereira, J. A. (2008). Antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds of ten Portuguese regional and commercial almond cultivars. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(6), 2230–2235, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2008.02.024.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Calle, A., Aparicio-Durán, L., Batlle, I., Eduardo, I., and Miarnau, X. (2025). Review of agronomic and kernel quality traits of 273 almond cultivars. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 72, 3783–3828, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-024-02183-0.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Chatzimitakos, T., Athanasiadis, V., Kotsou, K., Makrygiannis, I., Bozinou, E., and Lalas, S. I. (2024). Evaluation of the nutritional value of Prunus dulcis blossoms and the antioxidant compounds of their extracted oil using green extraction method. Applied Sciences, 14(5), 2001, https://doi.org/10.3390/app14052001.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Çolak, A. M., Gundogdu, M., Berk, S. K., Sahi̇ n, T., and Canaz, M. (2024). Agromorphological genetic identification of almond genetic resources regarding physicochemical properties in Turkey. Research Square [Preprint], https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4363310/v1.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Čolić, S., Zec, G., Natić, M., and Fotirić-Akšić, M. (2019). Almond (Prunus dulcis) oil. In M. F. Ramadan (Ed.), Fruit oils: Chemistry and functionality (pp.149–180). Cham: Springer, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12473-1_6.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Deans, C. A., Sword, G. A., Lenhart, P. A., Burkness, E., Hutchison, W. D., and Behmer, S. T. (2018). Quantifying plant soluble protein and digestible carbohydrate content, using corn (Zea mays) as an exemplar. Journal of Visualized Experiments, (138), e58164, https://doi.org/10.3791/58164.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
De Oliveira Sousa, A. G., Fernandes, D. C., Alves, A. M., DE Freitas, J. B., and Naves, M. M. V. (2011). Nutritional quality and protein value of exotic almonds and nut from the Brazilian Savanna compared to peanut. Food Research International, 44(7), 2319–2325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.013.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Di Lena, B., Farinelli, D., Palliotti, A., Poni, S., Dejong, T. M., and Tombesi, S. (2018). Impact of climate change on the possible expansion of almond cultivation area pole-ward: A case study of Abruzzo, Italy. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 93(2), 209–215, https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2017.1357433.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Drogoudi, P. D., Pantelidis, G., Bacchetta, L., De Giorgio, D., Duval, H., Metzidakis, I., and Spera, D. (2013). Protein and mineral nutrient contents in kernels from 72 sweet almond cultivars and accessions grown in France, Greece and Italy. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 64(2), 202–209, https://doi.org/10.3109/09637486.2012.728202.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Giordani, E., Berti, M., and Yaqubi, M. (2017). Phenotypic characterisation of almond accessions collected in Afghanistan. Advances in Horticultural Science, 30(4), 207–216, https://doi.org/10.13128/ahs-20346.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gülcan, R. (1985). Descriptor list for almond (Prunus amygdalus) (revised). Rome: IBPGR Secretariat.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hernandez, E. M., and Sanders, T. A. B. (2024). Specialty oils: functional and nutraceutical properties. In T. A. B. Sanders (Ed.), Functional Dietary Lipids: Food Formulation, Consumer Issues, and Innovation for Health (2nd ed., pp. 69–97). Cambridge and Kidlington, UK: Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15327-3.00002-1.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hosseinzadeh, M., Moayedi, A., Moghaddas, H. C., and Rezaei, K. (2019). Nutritional, anti-nutritional, and antioxidant properties of several wild almond species from Iran. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 21(2), 369–380.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ibourki, M., AIT Bouzid, H., Bijla, L., Aissa, R., Sakar, E. H., Ainane, T., Gharby, S., and El Hammadi, A. E. (2022). Physical fruit traits, proximate composition, fatty acid and elemental profiling of almond [Prunus dulcis Mill. DA Webb] kernels from ten genotypes grown in southern Morocco. OCL, 29, 9, https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2022002.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Janick, J., and Paull, R. E. (2008). The encyclopedia of fruit and nuts. Wallingford, UK: CABI, https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851996387.0000.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Levent, O. (2022). A detailed comparative study on some physicochemical properties, volatile composition, fatty acid, and mineral profile of different almond (Prunus dulcis L.) varieties. Horticulturae, 8(6), 488, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8060488.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Milbury, P. E., Chen, C., Dolnikowski, G. G., and Blumberg, J. B. (2006). Determination of flavonoids and phenolics and their distribution in almonds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(14), 5027–5033, https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0603937.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Monastra, F., Crisafulli, A., Marchese, F., Ondradu, G., Pavia, R., and Rivalta, L. (1984). Étude pomologique de 70 variétés d’amandier d’origine différente. GREMPA, Colloque 1983. Paris: CIHEAM, 27–37 (Options Méditerranéennes, Série Études, No. 1984-II).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Mrázová, M., Rampáčková, E., Šnurkovič, P., Ondrášek, I., Nečas, T., and Ercişli, S. (2021). Determination of selected beneficial substances in peach fruits. Sustainability, 13, 14028, https://doi.org/10.3390/su132414028.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Oliveira, I., Meyer, A. S., Afonso, S., Aires, A., Goufo, P., Trindade, H., and Gonçalves, B. (2019). Phenolic and fatty acid profiles, α-tocopherol and sucrose contents, and antioxidant capacities of understudied Portuguese almond cultivars. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 43, e12887, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.12887.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Oliveira, I., Meyer, A., Afonso, S., Ribeiro, C., and Gonçalves, B. (2018). Morphological, mechanical and antioxidant properties of Portuguese almond cultivars. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 55, 467–478, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2955-3.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ondrášek, I. (2022). Collection and evaluation of almond genetic resources: an overview of the current status. In L. Papoušková (Ed.), Využití genetických zdrojů rostlin ve šlechtění: Sborník referátů ze semináře pořádaného 8. prosince 2021 on-line v rámci RGZ 2021 (p. 131). Prague: Výzkumný ústav rostlinné výroby, v.v.i. ISBN 978-80-7427-380-3.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Özcan, M. M., Ünver, A., Erkan, E., and Arslan, D. (2011). Characteristics of some almond kernel and oils. Scientia Horticulturae, 127(3), 330–333, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2010.10.027.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Özcan, M. M., and Uslu, N. (2022). Effect of variety on bioactive properties, phytochemicals and nutrients of almond kernels. Erwerbs-Obstbau, 65(4), 981–988, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10341-022-00762-y.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Prudencio, Ás., Dicenta, F., and Martínez-Gómez, P. (2018). Monitoring dormancy transition in almond [Prunus dulcis (Miller) Webb] during cold and warm mediterranean seasons through the analysis of a DAM (Dormancy-Associated MADS-Box) gene. Horticulturae, 4(4), 41, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae4040041.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rampáčková, E., Göttingerová, M., Gála, P., Kiss, T., Ercişli, S., and Nečas, T. (2021). Evaluation of protein and antioxidant content in apricot kernels as a sustainable additional source of nutrition. Sustainability, 13(9), 4742, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094742.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Roncero, J. M., Álvarez-Ortí, M., Pardo-Giménez, A., Rabadán, A., and Pardo, J. E. (2020). Review about non-lipid components and minor fat-soluble bioactive compounds of almond kernel. Foods, 9(11), 1646, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9111646.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Simsek, M., and Demirkiran, A. R. (2010). Determination of superior almond genotypes in Diyarbakir central districts. Agricultural Journal, 5(3), 173–180, https://makhillpublications.co/files/published-files/mak-aj/2010/3-173-180.pdf.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Simsek, M., Gulsoy, E., Yavic, A., Arikan, B., Yildirim, Y., Olmez, N., Erdogmus, B., and Boguc, F. (2018). Fatty acid, mineral and proximate compositions of various genotypes and commercial cultivars of sweet almond from the same ecological conditions. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 16(3), 2957–2971, https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1603_29572971.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Summo, C., Palasciano, M., De Angelis, D., Paradiso, V. M., Caponio, F., and Pasqualone, A. (2018). Evaluation of the chemical and nutritional characteristics of almonds (Prunus dulcis (Mill). D. A. Webb) as influenced by harvest time and cultivar. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 98(15), 5647–5655, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9110.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
UPOV. (2011). Almond. Guidelines for the conduct of tests for distinctness, uniformity and stability. UPOV, Geneva, Switzerland. UPOV Code: PRUNU_DUL.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Valdés, A., Vidal, L., Beltrán, A., Canals, A., and Garrigós, M. C. (2015). Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from almond skin byproducts (Prunus amygdalus): A multivariate analysis approach. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(22), 5395–5402, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01011.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Viti, R., Bartolini, S., and Giorgelli, F. (1994). Effect of low temperatures on flower buds of several almond cultivars. Acta Horticulturae, 373, 193–200, https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.1994.373.27.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yada, S., Huang, G., and Lapsley, K. (2013). Natural variability in the nutrient composition of California-grown almonds. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 30(2), 80–85, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2013.01.008.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yada, S., Lapsley, K., and Huang, G. (2011). A review of composition studies of cultivated almonds: Macronutrients and micronutrients. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 24(4–5), 469–480, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2011.01.007.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yildirim, A., Akinci-Yildirim, F., San, B., and Sesli, Y. (2016). Total oil content and fatty acid profile of some almond (Amygdalus communis L.) cultivars. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 66(3), 173–178, https://doi.org/10.1515/pjfns-2015-0032.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zloch, Z., Čelakovský, J., and Aujezdská, A. (2004). Stanovení obsahu polyfenolů a celkové antioxidační kapacity v potravinách rostlinného původu. Plzeň: Ústav hygieny Lékařské fakulty UK Plzeň.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Articles in this issue

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/fhort-2026-0007 | Journal eISSN: 2083-5965 | Journal ISSN: 0867-1761

Journal RSS Feed

Language: English

Submitted on: Aug 4, 2025

Accepted on: May 8, 2026

Published on: Jun 5, 2026

Published by: Polish Society for Horticultural Sciences (PSHS)

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Publication frequency: 2 issues per year

Keywords:

secondary metabolites,

taste

Related subjects:

Life sciences,

Plant science,

Zoology,

Ecology,

Life sciences, other

© 2026 Ivo Ondrášek, Eliška Zezulová, Erika Slámová, Tomáš Nečas, published by Polish Society for Horticultural Sciences (PSHS)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

AHEAD OF PRINT