Figure 1.
The effect of thermal bending.
Figure 2.
Railroad tracks bent due to linear thermal expansion (image source: https://thermtest.com/what-is-coefficient-of-thermal-expansion-how-to-measure-it).
| Symbol | Description | Unit |
|---|---|---|
| ΔL | Change in length due to thermal expansion | mm |
| L | Original length | mm |
| αL | Linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) | [-] |
| ΔT | Temperature change | °C or K |
Figure 3.
Resistance Welding Station.
Figure 4.
The process curve for fabrication (Zhang et al., 2023).
Figure 5.
AL-CPA6 RW Sample.
Figure 6.
Deflected sample.
Table 1.
The sample dimensions.
| Sample | Length L [mm] | Join Length [mm] | Width [mm] | Thickness AL. [mm] | Thickness CF [mm] | Thickness [mm] | delta (deflection [mm]) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 2.8 | 2.2 |
| 2 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 2.8 | 2.3 |
| 3 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 2.9 |
| 4 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 4 |
| 5 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 4.4 |
| 6 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 2.2 |
| 7 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 3.6 |
| 8 | 110 | 27 | 25 | 1 | 1.8 | 3 | 3.7 |
Figure 7.
CAD model of the welded sample.
Figure 8.
Pressure application in the model.
Figure 9.
Closeup of the FEM mesh.
Figure 10.
Isotropic secant coefficient of the thermal expansion of Aluminum 7075 (Rice et al., 2011).
Figure 11.
Influence of temperature on the isotropic elasticity of Aluminum 7075 (Rice et al., 2011).
Figure 12.
Stress–strain relationship of Polyamide 6 samples (Farina et al., 2019).
Figure 13.
Thermal analysis, maximum temperature output.
Figure 14.
Residual Stress. Von Mises plot (20°C→240°C→20°C).
Figure 15.
End of time, residual shear stress. Overall plot (20°C→240°C→20°C).
Figure 16.
End of time, residual normal stress. Overall plot (20°C→240°C→20°C).
Figure 17.
End of time, residual shear stress. Weld area plot, aluminum surface (20°C→240°C→20°C).
Figure 18.
End of time, residual normal stress. Weld area plot aluminum surface (20°C→240°C→20°C).
Figure 19.
Residual Stresses on the Weld Path.