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Characteristics of Chinese culture stated in the selected articles
| Chinese culture | Statements | n | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Authoritative | Negative | 8 | Nield (2004) |
| Competitive | Negative | 3 | Du (2016) |
| Face-saving | Negative | 3 | Yong (2021) |
| Collectivism | Neutral | 8 | Du et al. (2016) |
| Harmony | Positive | 4 | Zhang (2013) |
| Chinese education | Attitude | n | Examples |
| Teacher-driven instruction | Negative | 5 | Windsor (2021) |
| Achievement-focussed | Negative | 4 | Commander et al. (2016) |
| Authoritarian | Negative | 1 | Turnbull et al. (2021) |
| Spoon-fed education | Negative | 1 | Xiao and Hurd (2010) |
| Content-based instruction | Neutral | 3 | Tsai (2019) |
| Fundamental skills training | Neutral | 3 | Tsai (2019) |
| Difficult subjects | Neutral | 1 | Nield (2004) |
| Long-term oriented | Neutral | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Learner characteristics | Attitude | n | Examples |
| Conservative | Negative | 5 | Zhu et al. (2009a) |
| Silent | Negative | 5 | Zhu et al. (2009a) |
| Afraid of losing face | Negative | 4 | Law et al. (2013) |
| Avoiding conflict | Negative | 2 | Zhang (2013) |
| Diligent | Positive | 2 | Du (2016) |
| Adaptive | Positive | 2 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
| Holistic | Positive | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Learner behaviours | Attitude | n | Examples |
| Being passive | Negative | 9 | Windsor (2021) |
| Not asking for teacher guidance | Negative | 9 | Law et al. (2013) |
| Being pragmatic and utilitarian | Negative | 6 | Law et al. (2013) |
| A lack of critical thinking | Negative | 3 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
| Content-oriented in discussions | Neutral | 1 | Zhu et al. (2009a) |
| Searching for new knowledge | Positive | 1 | Zhang (2013) |
Specific theories used in the selected articles
| Specific theories | n | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Learning-related theories (n = 11) | ||
| Self-regulated learning theory | 5 | Hou (2020) |
| Motivation theory | 2 | Xiao and Hurd (2010) |
| Flow theory | 1 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Language learning theory | 1 | Zheng et al. (2016) |
| Learner beliefs | 1 | Xiao and Hurd (2010) |
| Self-efficacy | 1 | Cui (2021) |
| Culture-related theories (n = 10) | ||
| Acculturation framework | 4 | Forbush and Foucault-Welles (2016) |
| Interpretivism | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Social constructivism | 1 | Zhu et al. (2009b) |
| Sociocultural constructivism | 1 | Commander et al. (2016) |
| Theory of culture | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Theory of cultural attributes | 1 | Zhang (2013) |
| Theory of interest | 1 | Du (2016) |
| Technology-related theories (n = 8) | ||
| Technology acceptance model | 3 | Cui (2021) |
| Diffusion of innovation | 1 | Duan et al. (2010) |
| Media richness theory | 1 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Multimedia learning theory | 1 | Tsai (2019) |
| Push–pull–mooring model | 1 | Jin et al. (2021) |
| Transactional distance theory | 1 | Liu (2020) |
| Studies without theories (n = 13) | ||
| Studies without theories | 13 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
Findings of the studies
| Findings about specific online learning tools | N | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Automatic essay-scoring services improve students’ learning performance. | 4 | Hou (2020) | |
| Internet/Web search/virtual platforms provide valuable information and help students seek academic resources. | 2 | Mikal et al. (2015) | |
| Social networking tools discourage students’ cultural integration. | 2 | Forbush and Foucault-Welles (2016) | |
| There are gender differences in students’ selections and usages of learning tools. | 2 | Ng and Tan (2017) | |
| Social media platforms are effective in helping students to adjust to their lives abroad. | 1 | Chen and Yang (2015) | |
| Learning management systems help students interact with others. | 1 | Turnbull et al. (2021) | |
| Findings about Chinese students’ behaviours | N | Examples | |
| Learning culture | There is a strong cultural clash between Chinese traditional education and online pedagogic practices, which strongly affects students’ learning behaviours. | 4 | Yong (2021) |
| Learning motivation | Interest in subjects and positive self-talk improve students’ motivation. | 2 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Learning outcomes | Students learning outcome is generally improved. | 2 | Commander et al. (2016) |
| Learning activities | Students are heavily involved in the discussion board. | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Learning environment | Feedback and help-seeking contribute to managing the learning environment. | 1 | Du (2016) |
| Learning strategies | Students’ learning strategies are more in line with a social–constructivist learning approach. | 1 | Zhu et al. (2009b) |
| Findings about Chinese students’ emotions and perspectives | N | Examples | |
| Students are satisfied with online learning. | 3 | Zhou et al. (2021) | |
| Students are less comfortable with online learning. | 2 | Zhu et al. (2009a) | |
| Students show that they need pastoral care | 1 | Yong (2021) | |
| Due to language problems, international students feel more isolated and alienated. | 1 | Kung (2017) | |
| Students prefer to take blended learning. | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) | |
Final inclusion and exclusion criteria
| Criteria | Inclusion | Exclusion |
|---|---|---|
| Student nationality | Chinese students | Non-Chinese students |
| Education level | Higher education | Not higher education |
| Mode of delivery | Online, distance, remote, emergency remote learning | Face-to-face, blended, hybrid learning |
| Empirical study | Papers include empirical data | Conceptual papers, literature review |
Specific research topics
| Specific topics | n | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Students attitudes (n = 19) | ||
| Perceptions | 5 | Zhu et al. (2009a) |
| Preference | 5 | Du et al. (2016) |
| Acceptance | 2 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Beliefs | 2 | Zheng et al. (2016) |
| Motivation | 2 | Xiao and Hurd (2010) |
| Satisfaction | 2 | Tsai (2019) |
| Self-efficacy | 1 | Cui (2021) |
| Learning technologies/tools (n = 15) | ||
| Internet/Web search/virtual platform | 3 | Mikal et al. (2015) |
| Social networking tools | 3 | Saw et al. (2013) |
| Learning management system | 3 | Turnbull et al. (2021) |
| Massive open online course (MOOC)/interactive courseware | 2 | Tsai (2019) |
| Automatic essay-scoring services | 1 | Hou (2020) |
| E-library | 1 | Ng and Tan (2017) |
| Game-based learning tool | 1 | Windsor (2021) |
| Synchronous communication tools | 1 | Liu (2020) |
| Learning activities (n = 15) | ||
| Discussion/knowledge co-construction | 6 | Commander et al. (2016) |
| Assessment/review exercises | 5 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
| Groupwork | 3 | Du (2016) |
| Learning environmental structuring | 1 | Du (2016) |
| Learning subject (n = 10) | ||
| Language learning | 5 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Accounting education | 2 | Yong (2021) |
| Architecture | 1 | Wong et al. (2002) |
| Design education | 1 | Law et al. (2013) |
| Engineering education | 1 | Tawil et al. (2012) |
| Culture/cultural issues (n = 10) | ||
| Culture differences | 5 | Smith et al. (2005) |
| Intercultural adaptation | 4 | Mikal et al. (2015) |
| Influence of traditional culture | 1 | Zhang (2013) |
| Learning strategies (n = 7) | ||
| Self-regulated learning | 4 | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Collaborative learning | 3 | Du (2016) |
| Learning performance (n = 5) | ||
| Learning outcomes | 3 | Tsai (2019) |
| Effectiveness | 2 | Windsor (2021) |
| Influencing factors (n = 5) | ||
| Factors on students’ online learning uptake | 4 | Cui (2021) |
| Factors on students’ online learning outcomes | 1 | Zhu et al. (2009a) |
Data collection and analysis methods
| Data collection methods | n | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Survey | 22 | Jin et al. (2021) |
| Interview | 15 | Law et al. (2013) |
| Experiment (pre- and post-tests) | 4 | Tsai (2019) |
| Secondary data | 4 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
| Observation | 3 | Yong (2021) |
| Personal experience | 2 | Wong et al. (2002) |
| Students’ postings | 2 | Commander et al. (2016) |
| Data analysis methods | n | Examples |
| Inferential statistics | 19 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
| Descriptive statistics | 14 | Cheng and Ding (2021) |
| Qualitative coding | 9 | Hou (2020) |
| Thematic analysis | 3 | Yong (2021) |
| Content analysis | 2 | Smith et al. (2005) |
| Narrative analysis | 1 | Turnbull et al. (2021) |
| Systematic analysis | 1 | Turnbull et al. (2021) |
| Triangulation | 1 | Thompson and Ku (2005) |
Search strings
| Topic and cluster | Search string |
|---|---|
| Student | “Chinese student” OR “Chinese learner” OR “Chinese * learner” OR “Chinese * student” |
| AND | |
| Mode of delivery | “online” OR “distance” OR “remote” OR “emergency” |
| AND | |
| Education level | “higher education” OR “universit*” OR “college” OR “tertiary education” OR “higher Institut*” OR “postgraduate” OR “undergraduate” OR “graduate” OR “PhD” |