Figure 1.
Exposure to AI by age groups and education level
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Figure 2.
Exposure to AI by log wage percentile
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Figure 3.
Correlation between change in log wage between 2010–2018 and AI exposure, in Eastern and Western European countries
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Table 1.
The relationship between AI exposure, skill level (education), and workers’ wages, standardised
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AI Exposure (std.) | 0.028*** (0.003) | 0.063*** (0.003) | 0.025*** (0.002) | 0.084*** (0.004) | 0.122*** (0.003) | 0.017*** (0.003) |
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) | 0.010*** (0.002) | −0.001 (0.002) | 0.027*** (0.001) | 0.046*** (0.003) | 0.043*** (0.003) | 0.027*** (0.002) |
| AI Exposure (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | −0.039*** (0.002) | −0.050*** (0.002) | −0.009*** (0.002) | |||
| AI Exposure (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | −0.080*** (0.003) | −0.080*** (0.003) | 0.036*** (0.002) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | −0.022*** (0.002) | −0.038*** (0.002) | −0.015*** (0.001) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | −0.043*** (0.003) | −0.048*** (0.003) | −0.001 (0.002) | |||
| Secondary Education dummy | −0.065*** (0.002) | −0.041*** (0.001) | 0.072*** (0.001) | −0.069*** (0.003) | −0.034*** (0.002) | 0.085*** (0.002) |
| Tertiary Education dummy | 0.131*** (0.002) | 0.165*** (0.002) | 0.226*** (0.002) | 0.170*** (0.003) | 0.200*** (0.003) | 0.205*** (0.002) |
| Occupation FE. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Sector FE. | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
| Country FE. | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
| No. of Observations | 7.9 M | 7.9 M | 7.9 M | 7.9 M | 7.9 M | 7.9 M |
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data.
Figure 4.
The estimated relationship between AI exposure and workers’ wages in primary, secondary, and tertiary educated groups
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Figure 5.
Estimated returns to education by deciles of AI exposure
Note: Primary education is the base category. For presentation purposes, the distance between AI exposure deciles is equal
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Table 2.
The relationship between AI exposure, skill level (education), and workers’ wages in Western and Eastern European country groups, standardised
| Panel A: Western European | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AI Exposure (std.) | 0.067*** (0.006) | 0.066*** (0.005) | 0.043*** (0.004) | 0.136*** (0.007) | 0.130*** (0.005) | 0.048*** (0.005) |
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) | 0.010*** (0.003) | 0.051*** (0.003) | 0.037*** (0.002) | 0.067*** (0.004) | 0.103*** (0.003) | 0.044*** (0.003) |
| AI Exposure (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | −0.079*** (0.003) | −0.068*** (0.002) | −0.016*** (0.002) | |||
| AI Exposure (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | −0.034*** (0.004) | −0.050*** (0.003) | 0.017*** (0.002) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | −0.060*** (0.003) | −0.052*** (0.003) | −0.016*** (0.002) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | −0.086*** (0.004) | −0.072*** (0.003) | −0.012*** (0.002) | |||
| Secondary Education dummy | 0.250*** (0.002) | 0.223*** (0.002) | 0.107*** (0.001) | 0.273*** (0.003) | 0.243*** (0.003) | 0.117*** (0.002) |
| Tertiary Education dummy | 0.385*** (0.003) | 0.359*** (0.002) | 0.244*** (0.002) | 0.419*** (0.004) | 0.395*** (0.004) | 0.236*** (0.003) |
| Occupation FE. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Sector FE. | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
| Country FE. | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
| No. of Observations | 3.3 M | 3.3 M | 3.3 M | 3.3 M | 3.3 M | 3.3 M |
| Panel B: Eastern European | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AI Exposure (std.) | 0.038*** (0.003) | 0.036*** (0.003) | 0.009*** (0.003) | 0.034*** (0.005) | 0.028*** (0.005) | −0.010** (0.005) |
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) | 0.017*** (0.002) | 0.009*** (0.002) | 0.018*** (0.002) | −0.009*** (0.003) | −0.014*** (0.003) | 0.002 (0.003) |
| AI Exposure (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | −0.012*** (0.004) | −0.011** (0.004) | −0.005 (0.004) | |||
| AI Exposure (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | 0.011** (0.005) | 0.027*** (0.005) | 0.056*** (0.005) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Secondary Education dummy | 0.017*** (0.003) | 0.012*** (0.003) | 0.000 (0.003) | |||
| AI Exposure 2 (std.) X Tertiary Education dummy | 0.037*** (0.004) | 0.028*** (0.004) | 0.013*** (0.003) | |||
| Secondary Education dummy | −0.012*** (0.002) | 0.004** (0.002) | 0.051*** (0.002) | −0.039*** (0.003) | −0.015*** (0.003) | 0.051*** (0.003) |
| Tertiary Education dummy | 0.126*** (0.003) | 0.138*** (0.003) | 0.229*** (0.002) | 0.070*** (0.004) | 0.088*** (0.004) | 0.190*** (0.003) |
| Occupation FE | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Sector FE. | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
| Country FE. | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
| No. of Observations | 4.7 M | 4.7 M | 4.7 M | 4.7 M | 4.7 M | 4.7 M |
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data.
Figure 6.
The estimated relationship between AI exposure and workers’ wages for the primary, secondary, and tertiary educated, in Eastern and Western European countries
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data
Figure 7.
Estimated returns to education by deciles of AI exposure in Eastern and Western European countries
Source: authors’ elaboration based on EU SES, EORA, E. Felten et al. (2021) data.