Table 1.
Relative importance of behavioural and physiological needs in calves (based on literature review)
| Behavioural categories and needs | Calves in neonatal period* | Older calves | Animals during sexual maturation | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nutrition and health | ! | ++++ | ++++ | Bouissou et al., 2001; Phillips, 2002; Fericean et al., 2010; Camiloti et al., 2012; Adamczyk et al., 2015; Costa et al., 2016; Perry, 2016; Adamczyk, 2018; Broucek et al., 2020; Whalin et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022 |
| Maintenance and health | ! | ++++ | ++++ | |
| Chewing rumination | ++ | +++ | +++++ | |
| Exploratory behaviour | + | +++ | +++++ | |
| General physical activity | + | +++ | +++++ | |
| Play behaviours | ++ | ++++ | +++ | |
| Calf–cow relationship** | ++ | ++++ | +++ | |
| Calf–calf relationship | ++ | +++ | +++++ |
* Neonatal period according to Raboisson et al. (2013); the relative importance of behavioural and physiological needs (“+” symbols) was assessed qualitatively, based on emphasis in the cited literature; symbols: ! – the crucial importance for the survival of the calf; + – low; ++ – moderate; +++ – high; ++++ – very high; +++++ – highest; − – the need is non-existent or insignificant;
Table 2.
Types of non-nutritive oral behaviours, their occurrence and methods of prevention
| Abnormal behaviour | Frequency | Period | Prevention methods | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Neophobia | –/+ | Peri-weaning and immediate post-weaning period | Marginal importance in breeding. Disappears after systematic introduction of novelties. | Costa et al., 2014; Castells et al., 2013; Morrow et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024 |
| NNOM | –/+, ++ | Before weaning | Provision of adequate space, maintenance in groups, access to hay, provision of feed in one place, frequent feeding, large amounts of milk replacer, adequate buckets with teats, nutritional enrichment. | Leruste et al., 2014; Downey et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2023; Babu et al., 2004 |
| NNOB | –/+, ++ | Before weaning but also possible after weaning | Provision of adequate space, maintenance in groups, access to hay, provision of feed in one place, frequent feeding, large amounts of milk replacer, adequate buckets with teats, nutritional enrichment. | Peng et al., 2023; Mason, 1991; Ridge et al., 2020; Webb et al., 2012; Riley et al., 2023; Downey et al., 2021, 2023 b; Daigle et al., 2023; Salter et al., 2021; Horvath and Miller-Cushon, 2017, 2019 a, b; Xiao et al., 2023 |
| Tongue rolling | –/+ | Before and after weaning | Environmental enrichment, use of hay, providing stimulation (e.g., adding sucking teats). | Peng et al., 2023; Daigle et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024 a, b; Roth et al., 2009 a; Downey et al., 2022; Veissier et al., 2013 |
| Cross-sucking | –/+, ++ | Usually before weaning | Provision of increased milk, positive energy balance, management of milk feeding (avoiding open bucket, and use of teats, leaving bucket with teats), keeping with mother. | Pempek et al., 2016; Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023; Mason and Rushen, 2006; Salter et al., 2021; Downey et al., 2022; Jensen, 2003; de Passillé et al., 2011, 2012; Mahendran et al., 2023; Hillmann et al., 2011; Roth et al., 2009 a; de Paula Vieira et al., 2008; Khan et al., 2020; Meale et al., 2015 |
| Abnormal play and exploration | –/+, + | Peri-weaning period | Provision of adequate space allowance. | Barry et al., 2020; Lv et al., 2021; Bailly-Caumette et al., 2023; Marin et al., 2024 |
| Abnormal self-grooming | –/+ | Peri-weaning and immediate post-weaning period | Appropriate rearing substrate. | Sutherland et al., 2014; Whalin et al., 2021 |
| Stress-related behaviour | –/+ | Peri-weaning period, immediately after weaning, group and environmental changes | Prevention and reduction of pain, distress, anxiety, and fear. | Graf and Senn, 1999; Neja et al., 2017; Qi et al., 2024 |