| Chemical | CaO (quicklime), Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) |
Alkalisation of litter environment, pH > 12, protein denaturation, enzyme inactivation. May raise litter temperature and increase ammonia emissions. High effectiveness in antibiotic residue inactivation, pathogen and ARG elimination.
| Medium / medium | (Maguire et al. 2006), (Więckol-Ryk et al. 2023) |
| NaHSO4 (sodium bisulphate) |
pH reduction, microorganism deactivation. Lower effectiveness in antibiotic residue and ARG inactivation compared to alkaline method.
| Low / low | (Rothrock et al. 2008) |
| Al2(SO4)3·14H2O (alum) |
pH reduction, phosphate binding, ammonia emission reduction. Moderate effectiveness in antibiotic residue and ARG inactivation.
| Low / low | (Choi et al. 2008), (Gandhapudi et al. 2006) |
| Nanotechnology (e.g. nano-Ag) |
Biocidal action, bacterial cell wall damage. High toxicity. High effectiveness in antibiotic residue, pathogen and ARG elimination.
| High / medium | (Czyż et al. 2023), (Mohammed et al. 2022) |
| Biological | Storage (manure storage) |
Temporary microbial inactivation. Low impact on antibiotic residues and ARG. Moderate impact on bacterial communities (pathogens).
| Low / low | (Ferguson et al. 2004) |
| Aerobic composting |
Aerobic decomposition of poultry litter or chicken manure. Economical and environmentally friendly approach. Requires temperature and moisture control. High effectiveness in antibiotic residue inactivation. Very high effectiveness in pathogen elimination. High ARG elimination (tet, ermB, qnr, bla) only in thermophilic phase (>80 °C).
| Medium / medium | (Qiu et al., 2021), (Esperon et al., 2020) |
| Aerobic composting with mineral additives (e.g. bentonite) |
Adsorption of active substances, stabilisation of organic matter, odour reduction. High effectiveness in inactivating antibiotic residues. Very high effectiveness in eliminating pathogens. High effectiveness in eliminating ARG to tetracyclines, sulphonamides and macrolides (tet, ermB, sul).
| Medium / medium | (Qiu et al., 2022) |
| Aerobic composting with carbon additives (biochar, bamboo charcoal) |
Adsorption of pollutants, stabilisation of organic matter, increased nitrogen retention. Very high effectiveness in inactivating antibiotic residues. Very high effectiveness in eliminating pathogens and ARG to tetracyclines, sulphonamides and phenicols (tet, sul floR, cfr).
| Medium–high / medium | (Cui et al., 2016), (Li et al., 2017) |
| Aerobic composting with biochar and Bacillus subtilis inoculation |
Sorption of pollutants, stabilisation of organic matter, increased nitrogen retention. Highly effective in inactivating antibiotic residues. Very highly effective in eliminating pathogens and ARG to tetracyclines and macrolides (tet, ermB).
| Medium–high / medium | (Wu et al., 2024) |
| Aerobic composting with semi- permeable membrane technology (SMHC) |
Very high effectiveness in inactivating antibiotic residues. Very high effectiveness in eliminating pathogens. Very high effectiveness in eliminating ARG on beta-lactams and colistin (blaNDM-1 and mcr-1).
| High / medium–high | (Xing et al., 2021), (Cui et al., 2020) |
| Anaerobic digestion (methane fermentation) |
Anaerobic decomposition of biowaste, biogas production, post- fermentation acidification, odour reduction. Highly effective in inactivating antibiotic residues after thermophilic fermentation only. Moderate effectiveness in eliminating pathogens (47–72%) under thermophilic conditions. Moderate effectiveness in eliminating ARG (possibility of increasing the number of tet, sul, ermA genes).
| High / high | (Tian et al., 2016), (Jang et al., 2018), (Sun et al., 2022) |
| Anaerobic digestion with thermal pretreatment (TPT) |
Pre-treatment carried out before Anaerobic digestion (AD) at 70–180°C. Intensification of the AD process. Very high effectiveness in inactivating antibiotic residues (tetracycline, macrolides, lincosamides). Very high effectiveness in eliminating pathogens.
| Very high / high | (Pourrostami Niavol et al., 2024) |
| Anaerobic digestion with hydrothermal pretreatment (HTP) |
Pre-treatment carried out before AD at 120–200°C under high- pressure conditions. Very high effectiveness in inactivating antibiotic residues (e.g. tylosin). Very high effectiveness in eliminating pathogens. Very high effectiveness in eliminating ARG to beta-lactams and macrolides. sulphonamides, quinolones and tetracyclines (blaTEM, ermB, sul, qnr, tet).
| Very high / high | (Paranhos et al., 2023) |
| Anaerobic digestion with alkaline and ultrasonic microwave-acid pretreatment (MW-H) |
Raising pH, protein denaturation. High effectiveness in eliminating pathogens and ARB before AD. Moderate effectiveness in eliminating ARG (possible increase in ARG in post-fermentation).
| Medium / medium | (Wang et al., 2019), (Tong et al., 2016) |
| Anaerobic digestion with ultrasonic pretreatment and biochar |
| High / medium | (Zhang et al., 2019a) |
| Physical | UV radiation |
Enzymatic inactivation, damage to pathogens, DNA/RNA and ARG. Effective only on a thin layer of chicken manure. Highly effective in eliminating pathogens. Moderately effective in eliminating ARG.
| Medium / medium | (El-Maghawry et al., 2024) |
| Pasteurisation (thermal heating) |
Protein denaturation, damage to microbial DNA/RNA. Highly effective in eliminating pathogens (70°C) and bacterial spores (>90°C). Moderately effective in eliminating ARG.
| Medium–high / medium | (Martens and Böhm, 2009) |
