Overview of caprine paratuberculosis in goats in India and other countries
References
- Abdelaal A.M., Elgioushy M.M., Gouda S.M., El-Adl M.M., Hashish E.A., Elgaml S.A., Ali M.O., El-Gedawy A.A. (2019). Hematobiochemical and molecular markers (IS900) of cattle infected with Johne’s disease in Egypt. Slov. Vet. Zb., 56: 421–431.
https://doi.org/10.26873/SVR-780-2019 - Abraham A., Thomas N., Joseph S., Raghavan K.C. (2014). Comparative study on the efficacy of ELISA and PCR for the diagnosis of paratuberculosis in goats. Biotechnol. Anim. Husb., 30: 661–667.
https://doi.org/10.2298/BAH1404661T - Alonso M.P., Ortiz P., Ortega J., Velasco C., López A., Bezos J., Izquierdo-Garcia J.L. (2025). Metabolomic signatures of tuberculosis and paratuberculosis in goats revealed by high-resolution and benchtop NMR spectroscopy. Vet. Res., 57: 11. doi: 10.1186/s13567-025-01686-7.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-025-01686-7 - Altaf M., Farooq S., Bhat M.A., Kashoo Z.A., Yangzom P., Tramboo U., Qureshi S., Ul-Hussain I., Allaie I.M. (2025). Serological detection and molecular typing of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in sheep and goats co-infected with gastrointestinal parasites from the northern Himalayan territories of India. J. Appl. Microbiol., 136: lxaf180.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio/lxaf180 - Angelidou E., Kostoulas P., Leontides L. (2014). Flock level factors associated with the risk of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in Greek dairy goat flocks. Prev. Vet. Med., 117: 233–241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.09.002 - Ayele W.Y., Macháčková M., Pavlik I. (2001). The transmission and impact of paratuberculosis infection in domestic and wild ruminants. Vet. Med., 46: 205–224.
https://doi.org/10.17221/7878-VETMED - Baghbadorani M.K., Lotfollahzadeh S., Hasanvand A.K., Khabazan M.H., Darabi B.H. (2025). Prevalence of paratuberculosis in Murciano-Granadina dairy goats in Iran: seroprevalence in two large industrial herds and consequences. Vet. Res. Commun., 49: 309. doi: 10.1007/s11259-025-10869-8.
- Balikci E., Gurdogan F. (2015). Some biochemical parameters and oxidative stress biomarkers in sheep with paratuberculosis. Med. Weter., 71: 679–682.
- Barad D.B., Chandel B.S., Dadawala A.I., Chauhan H.S., Kher H.S., Shroff S., Bhagat A.G. (2014 a). Incidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Mehsana and Surti goats of Indian origin using multiple diagnostic tests. J. Biol. Sci., 14: 124–133.
https://doi.org/10.3923/jbs.2014.124.133 - Barad D.B., Jhala M.K., Bhanderi B.M., Patel J.S. (2014 b). Comparative evaluation of conventional, serological and molecular diagnostic tests for Johne’s disease in Mehsana and Surti goats of South Gujarat. Vet. World, 7: 699–704.
- Barrero-Domínguez B., Luque I., Huerta B., Gomez-Laguna J., Galán-Relaño Á., Gómez-Gascón L., Sánchez M., Astorga R.J. (2019). Paratuberculosis in dairy goat flocks from southern Spain: risk factors associated with seroprevalence. Vet. Rec., 185: 600.
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.105465 - Barrett D.J., Mee J.F., Mullowney P., Good M., McGrath G., Clegg T., More S.J. (2011). Risk factors associated with Johne’s disease test status in dairy herds in Ireland. Vet. Rec., 168: 410.
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c6866 - Beaudeau F., Belliard M., Joly A., Seegers H. (2007). Reduction in milk yield associated with MAP infection in dairy cows. Vet. Res., 38: 625–634.
https://doi.org/10.1051/vetres:2007021 - Bhat A.M., Malik H.U., Singh S.V., Hussain T., Chaubhey K.K., Rehman R.W.Y., Qadri S.I. (2018). Bioprevalence and molecular diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in small ruminant population of Ganderbal district of Kashmir valley. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud., 6: 1–4.
- Biswal S., Nayak A.K., Mohanty A.K. (2018 a). High seroprevalence of Johne’s disease in goats of Odisha. J. Parasit. Dis., 42: 482–488.
- Biswal S., Subhadarsini S.P., Sahoo N., Singh M., Singh V.S. (2018 b). Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in goat population of Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 7: 1618–1623.
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.701.196 - Biswal S., Rath A.P., Singh S.V., Sahoo N., Gupta S., Singh M., Chaubey K.K. (2020). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from subclinical caprine paratuberculosis cases of Odisha. Indian J. Anim. Res., 54: 709–715.
https://doi.org/10.18805/ijar.B-3691 - Bogli S.K., Kohler C., Seitert G. (2005). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Swiss dairy cattle by real-time PCR and culture: a comparison of the two assays. J. Appl. Microbiol., 99: 587–597.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02645.x - Bok E.Y., Kim T.Y., Seo S.Y., Lee H.G., Jung Y.H., Bae S.H., Oh N.S., Cho T.J., Park H.W., Shin E.C., Kim J.K. (2026). Exosomal microRNA profiling reveals candidate biomarkers and regulatory signatures associated with paratuberculosis disease status in goats. Vet. J., 315: 106553.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2026.106553 - Bonelli F., Fratini F., Turchi B., Cantile C., Ebani V.V., Colombani G., Galiero A., Sgorbini M. (2017). Evaluation of clinical pathology parameters in fecal PCR-positive or PCR-negative goats for Johne’s disease. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 49: 1489–1493.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-017-1351-3 - Borujeni M.P., Hajikolaei M.R., Ghorbanpoor M., Elhaei S.H., Bagheri S., Roveyshedzadeh S. (2021). Comparison of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in cattle, sheep and goats in the Khuzestan Province of Iran. Vet. Med. Sci., 7: 1970–1979.
https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.559 - Bruczyńska M., Didkowska A., Brzezińska S., Nowak M., Filip-Hutsch K., Kalicki M., Augustynowicz-Kopeć E., Anusz K. (2023). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in asymptomatic zoo herbivores in Poland. Animals, 13(6): 1022.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13061022 - Butot S., Ricchi M., Sevilla I.A., Michot L., Molina E., Tello M., Russo S., Arrigoni N., Garrido J.M., Tomas D. (2019). Estimation of performance characteristics of analytical methods for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis detection in dairy products. Front. Microbiol., 10: 509.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00509 - Catton B.A. (2002). Paucibacillary paratuberculosis in a goat. Can. Vet. J., 43: 787–788.
- Chaitanya R.K., Kavitha K.L., Sreedevi B. (2022). Current diagnostic approaches for paratuberculosis: a review. J. Livest. Sci., 13: 201–207.
https://doi.org/10.33259/JLivestSci.2022.201-207 - Chaturvedi S., Singh S.V., Srivastava A.K., Gangwar N.K., Kumar N., Rawat K.D., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K., Singh R., Singh R., Dhama K. (2017). Comparative evaluation of FAT, IS900 PCR and microscopy vis-à-vis histopathology for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in tissues of goats naturally died in herds endemic for Johne’s disease. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 87: 658–693.
https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v87i6.71061 - Chaubey K.K., Gupta R.D., Gupta S., Singh S.V., Bhatia A.K., Jayaraman S., Kumar N., Goel A., Rathore A.S., Sahzad, Sohal J.S. (2016). Trends and advances in the diagnosis and control of paratuberculosis in domestic livestock. Vet. Q., 36: 203–227.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2017.1397301 - Chaubey K.K., Singh S.V., Gupta S., Singh M., Sohal J.S., Kumar N., Singh M.K., Bhatia A.K., Dhama K. (2017). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis – an important foodborne pathogen of high public health significance with special reference to India: an update. Vet. Q., 37: 282–299.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2017.1397301 - Cheng Z., Liu M., Wang P., Liu P., Chen M., Zhang J., Liu S., Wang F. (2020). Characteristics and epidemiological investigation of paratuberculosis in dairy cattle in Tai’an, China. Biomed. Res. Int., 2020: 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3896754 - Clarke C.J. (1997). The pathology and pathogenesis of paratuberculosis in ruminants and other species. J. Comp. Pathol., 116: 217–261.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9975(97)80001-1 - Clarke C.J., Little D. (1996). The pathology of ovine paratuberculosis: gross and histological changes in the intestine and other tissues. J. Comp. Pathol., 114: 419–437.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9975(96)80017-X - Clarke C.J., Patterson I.A.P., Armstrong K.E., Low J.C. (1996). Comparison of the absorbed ELISA and agar gel immunodiffusion test with clinicopathological findings in ovine clinical paratuberculosis. Vet. Rec., 139: 618–621.
- Claudia C.G.R., Santillan-Flores M.A., Córdova López D. (2016 a). Prevalence and possible risk factors for caprine paratuberculosis in intensive dairy production units in Guanajuato, Mexico. J. Vet. Med. Anim. Health, 8: 156–162.
https://doi.org/10.5897/JVMAH2016.0497 - Claudia J., Martínez L., Ramírez E. (2016 b). Molecular confirmation of paratuberculosis in small ruminants in Mexico. Vet. Microbiol., 193: 28–34.
- Collins D.M., Gabric D.M., de Lisle G.W. (1990). Identification of two groups of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis strains by restriction endonuclease analysis and DNA hybridization. J. Clin. Microbiol., 28: 1591–1596.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.28.7.1591-1596.1990 - Collins M.T., Spahr U., Murphy P.M. (2001). Ecological characteristics of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Int. Dairy Fed. Rep., 362: 32–40.
- Corpa J.M., Garrido J., Marin J.G., Perez V. (2000). Classification of lesions observed in natural cases of paratuberculosis in goats. J. Comp. Pathol., 122: 255–265.
https://doi.org/10.1053/jcpa.1999.0368 - Correa-Valencia N.M., Moyano R.D., Hernández-Agudelo M., Fernández-Silva J.A. (2021). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis molecular diversity in cattle, sheep and goats from Latin America and the Caribbean: a systematic review. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 53: 468.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-021-02923-9 - Coussens P.M. (2004). Model for immune responses to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in cattle. Infect. Immun., 72: 3089–3096.
https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.72.6.3089-3096.2004 - Cunha V.M., Rosalino L.M., Leao C., Bandeira V., Fonseca C., Botelho A., Reis A.C. (2020). Ecological drivers of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis detection in mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) using IS900 as proxy. Sci. Rep., 10: 860.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-57679-3 - Curlik J., Lazar P., Iglodyova A., Barbusinova E., Smiga L., Novotny J., Mojzisova J., Ondrejkova A., Hromada R., Konjevic D. (2020). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Slovakian wild-life. Pol. J. Vet. Sci., 23: 529–535.
https://doi.org/10.24425/pjvs.2020.134702 - De-Grossi L., Santori D., Barone A., Abbruzzese S., Ricchi M., Marcario G.A. (2019). Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in the feces and tissue of small ruminants using a non-automated liquid culture method. Animals, 10: 20.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10010020 - de Lacerda Roberto J.P., Limeira C.H., da Costa Barnabé N.N., Soares R.R., Silva M.L.C.R., de Barros Gomes A.A., Dos Santos Higino S.S., de Azevedo S.S., Alves C.J. (2021). Antibody detection and molecular analysis for Mycobacterium avium subspecies para-tuberculosis (MAP) in goat milk: systematic review and meta-analysis. Res. Vet. Sci., 135: 72–77.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.01.004 - Derakhshandeh A., Namazi F., Khatamsaz E., Eraghi V., Hemati Z. (2018). Goat paratuberculosis in Shiraz: histopathological and molecular approaches. Vet. Res. Forum, 9: 253.
- Didkowska A., Ptak M., Opałczyńska K., Wojciechowska M., Olech W., Anusz K. (2021). A serological survey of paratuberculosis in the Polish European bison (Bison bonasus) population in 2018–2021. Animals, 11: 2094.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11072094 - Douarre P.E., Cashman W., Buckley J., Coffey A., O’Mahony J.M. (2010). Isolation and detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from cattle in Ireland using both traditional culture and molecular based methods. Gut Pathog., 2: 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-4749-2-11 - Eisenberg S.W., Koets A.P., Hoeboer J., Bouman M., Heederik D., Nielen M. (2010). Presence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in environmental samples collected on commercial Dutch dairy farms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 76: 6310–6312.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00998-10 - El-Deeb W.M., Fouda T.A., El-Bahr S.M. (2014). Clinicobiochemical investigation of paratuberculosis of dromedary camels in Saudi Arabia: proinflammatory cytokines, acute phase proteins and oxidative stress biomarkers. Pak. Vet. J., 34: 556–560.
- Englund S., Bölske G., Ballagi-Pordany A., Johansson K.E. (2001). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in tissue samples by single, fluorescent and nested PCR based on the IS900 gene. Vet. Microbiol., 81: 257–271.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(01)00348-0 - Eslami M. (2011). Comparison of culture and PCR methods for the detection of Johne’s disease in milk samples. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 10: 614–618.
https://doi.org/10.3923/javaa.2011.614.618 - Espeschit I.F., Schwarz D.G.G., Faria A.C.S., Souza M.C.C., Paolicchi F.A., Juste R.A., Carvalho I.A., Moreira M.A.S. (2017). Paratuberculosis in Latin America: a systematic review. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 49: 1557–1576.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-017- - Estévez-Denaives I., Hernández-Castro R., Trujillo-García A.M., Chávez-Gris G. (2007 a). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in goat and sheep flocks in Mexico. Small Rumin. Res., 72: 209–213.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.10.017 - Estévez-Denaives J., García-Macedo J.M., López-Delgado P. (2007 b). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in sheep and goats in Mexico by PCR and culture. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 39: 489–497.
- Fang Y., Wu W.H., Pepper J.L., Larsen J.L., Marras S.A., Nelson E.A., Epperson W.B., Christopher-Hennings J. (2002). Comparison of real-time quantitative PCR with molecular beacons to nested PCR and culture methods for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in bovine fecal samples. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40: 287–291.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.1.287-291.2002 - Favila-Humara L.C., Chávez-Gris G.G., Carrillo-Casas E.M., Hernández-Castro R. (2010). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis detection in individual and bulk tank milk samples from bovine herds and caprine flocks. Foodborne Pathog. Dis., 7: 351–355.
https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2009.0374 - Fernández M., Royo M., Arteche-Villasol N., Ferreras M.C., Benavides J., Pérez V. (2022). Peripheral IFN-γ production after blood stimulation with different mycobacterial antigens in goats vaccinated against paratuberculosis. Vaccines, 10: 1709.
https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10101709 - Florou M., Leontides L., Kostoulas P., Billinis C., Sofia M., Kyriazakis I., Lykotrafitis F. (2008). Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from non-ruminant wild-life living in the sheds and on the pastures of Greek sheep and goats. Epidemiol. Infect., 136: 644–652.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026880700893X - Garg R., Patil P.K., Singh S.V., Sharma S., Gandham R.K., Singh A.V., Filia G., Singh P.K., Jayaraman S., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K. (2015). Comparative evaluation of different test combinations for diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infecting dairy herds in India. Biomed. Res. Int., 2015: 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/983978 - Godden S., McMartin S., Feirtag J., Stabel J., Bey R., Goyal S., Metzger L., Fetrow J., Wells S., Chester-Jones H. (2006). Heat-treatment of bovine colostrum. II: Effects of heating duration on pathogen viability and immunoglobulin G. J. Dairy Sci., 89: 3476–3483.
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72386-4 - Grant I.R., Ball H.J., Rowe M.T. (2002). Incidence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in bulk raw and commercially pasteurized cows’ milk from approved dairy processing establishments in the United Kingdom. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68: 2428–2435.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.5.2428-2435.2002 - Greig A. (1997). Paratuberculosis in wild rabbits. Vet. Rec., 140: 141–143.
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.140.6.141 - Gunnarsson E., Fodstad F.H. (1979). Cultural and biochemical characteristics of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis isolated from goats in Norway. Acta Vet. Scand., 20: 122.
https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03546635 - Hailat N.Q., Hananeh W., Metekia A.S., Stabel J.R., Majali A.A., Lafi S. (2010). Pathology of subclinical paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in Awassi sheep with reference to its occurrence in Jordan. Vet. Med., 55: 590–602.
https://doi.org/10.17221/2947-VETMED - Hansen S., Roller M., Alslim L.M., Böhlken-Fascher S., Fechner K., Czerny C.P., Abd El Wahed A. (2019). Development of rapid extraction method of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis DNA from bovine stool samples. Diagnostics, 9: 36.
https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics9020036 - Hasonova L., Pavlik I. (2006). Economic impact of paratuberculosis in dairy cattle herds: a review. Vet. Med., 51: 193–211.
https://doi.org/10.17221/5539-VETMED - Hemalatha S., Balasubramaniam G.A., Ramesh S., Thangavelu A. (2013 a). Seroprevalence of Johne’s disease in indigenous and exotic sheep breeds of India. Indian J. Small Rumin., 19: 48–52.
- Hemalatha S., Roy P., Purushothaman V., Iyue M. (2013 b). Paratuberculosis in different breeds of sheep: a retrospective study of cases. Int. J. Mycobacteriol., 2: 166–170.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmyco.2013.07.002 - Henderson D.C., Caldow G., Low C.J. (2000). Paratuberculosis in cattle: pathology and clinical disease. Scottish Agricultural College, Veterinary Science Division, Edinburgh, UK, pp. 15–19.
- Hermon-Taylor J., El-Zaatari F.A.K. (2004). The Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis problem and its relation to the causation of Crohn’s disease. IWA Publishing, London, UK, pp. 74–90.
- Idris S.M., Elmagzoub W.A., Okuni J.B., Ojok, L., Mukhtar M.E., Abdalla E.M., El Sanousi S.M., Amanzada A., Truyen U., El Wahed A.A., Eltayeb E., Eltom K.H., Gameel A.A. (2025). Paratuberculosis in small ruminants in the Sudan: prevalence and risk factors. BMC. Vet. Res., 21: 496.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-025-04920-8 - Islam M.M., Elfadl A.K., Naeem A., Abdeen R., Al-Hajri H.M., Sayeed M.A., Dejene H., Alawneh J.I., Hassan M.M. (2025). Epidemiology and diversity of paratuberculosis in the Arabian Peninsula: A systematic review and meta-analysis with implications for One Health. Pathogens., 9: 841.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14090841 - Jatav M., Verma Y., Swamy M., Dubey A. (2022). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from goats of Jabalpur region in India. Indian J. Vet. Sci. Biotechnol., 18: 132–134.
- Jørgensen J.B. (1982). An improved medium for culture of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis from bovine faeces. Acta Vet. Scand., 23: 325–335.
https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03546784 - Jurkovich V., Bognár B., Balogh K., Kovács-Weber M., Fornyos K., Szabó R.T., Kovács P., Könyves L., Mézes M. (2016). Effects of sub-clinical Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection on some physiological parameters, health status and production in dairy cows. Acta Vet. Hung., 64: 301–312.
https://doi.org/10.1556/004.2016.029 - Juste R.A., Marco J.C., de Ocáriz C.S., Adúriz J.J. (1991). Comparison of different media for the isolation of small ruminant strains of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Vet. Microbiol., 28: 385–390.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1135(91)90073-O - Kaba J., Czopowicz M., Mickiewicz M., Witkowski L., Moroz-Fik A., Biernacka K., Szaluś-Jordanow O., Nalbert T., Bereznowski A., Potârniche A.V., Mālniece A., Markowska-Daniel I., Rypuła K., Bagnicka E. (2024). Herd-level true seroprevalence of caseous lymphadenitis and paratuberculosis in the goat population of Poland. Prev. Vet. Med., 230: 106278.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106278 - Karthik K., Singh P., Das P. (2011). Dipstick immunoassay for rapid diagnosis of paratuberculosis in small ruminants. Small Rumin. Res., 99: 214–221.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.04.009 - Kawaji S., Taylor D.L., Mori Y., Whittington R.J. (2007). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in ovine faeces by direct quantitative PCR has similar or greater sensitivity compared to radiometric culture. Vet. Microbiol., 125: 36–48.
- Khare S., Adams L.G., Osterstock J., Roussel A., David L. (2008). Effects of shipping and storage conditions of fecal samples on viability of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol., 46: 1561–1562.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.05.002 - Khodakaram Tafti A., Rashidi K. (2000). The pathology of goat paratuberculosis: gross and histopathological lesions in the intestines and mesenteric lymph nodes. J. Vet. Med. B, 47: 487–495.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0450.2000.00375.x - Kopecky K.E., Larsen A.B. (1975). Intravenous johnin and tuberculin tests in cattle vaccinated with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis cells and subsequently inoculated with Mycobacterium bovis. Am. J. Vet. Res., 36: 1727–1729.
https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.1975.36.12.1727 - Kralik P., Beran V. (2015). PCR-based methods for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: an overview. Wiley-VCH, pp. 281–303.
- Krüger C., Köhler H., Liebler-Tenorio E.M. (2015 a). Cellular composition of granulomatous lesions in gut-associated lymphoid tissues of goats during the first year after experimental infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol., 163: 33–45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.11.002 - Krüger C., Köhler H., Liebler-Tenorio E.M. (2015 b). Sequential development of lesions 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after experimental infection of goat kids with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet. Pathol., 52: 276–290.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985814533804 - Kruze J., Salgado M., Paredes E., Mella A., Collins M.T. (2006). Goat paratuberculosis in Chile: first isolation and confirmation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in a dairy goat. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 18: 476–479.
https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870601800510 - Kruze J., Salgado M., Collins M.T. (2007). Paratuberculosis in Chilean dairy goat herds. Arch. Med. Vet., 39: 147–152.
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0301-732X2007000200008 - Kryzer A.A., Godden S.M., Schell R. (2015). Heat-treated (in single aliquot or batch) colostrum outperforms non-heat-treated colostrum in terms of quality and transfer of immunoglobulin G in neonatal Jersey calves. J. Dairy Sci., 98: 1870–1877.
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8387 - Kumar A., Singh R.K., Sharma D. (1988 a). Incidence of Johne’s disease in goats based on post-mortem examination. Indian J. Vet. Pathol., 12: 99–104.
- Kumar R., Prasad M.C., Paliwal O.P. (1988 b). Paratuberculosis in goats: a retrospective study. Indian Vet. J., 65: 582–584.
- Kumar P., Singh S.V., Bhatiya A.K., Sevilla I., Singh A.V., Whittington R.J., Juste R.A., Gupta V.K., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Vihan V.S. (2007). Juvenile capriparatuberculosis (JCP) in India: incidence and characterization by six diagnostic tests. Small Rumin. Res., 73: 45–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.10.023 - Lambeth C., Reddacliff L.A., Windsor P., Abbott K.A., McGregor H., Whittington R.J. (2004). Intrauterine and transmammary transmission of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in sheep. Aust. Vet. J., 82: 504–508.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.2004.tb11171.x - Leão C., Goldstone R.J., Bryant J., McLuckie J., Inácio J., Smith D.G., Stevenson K. (2016). Novel single nucleotide polymorphism-based assay for genotyping Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol., 54: 556–564.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01958-15 - Lee K.W., Jung B.Y., Moon O.K., Yang D.K., Lee S.H., Kim J.Y., Kweon C.H. (2006). Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Korean Black goats (Capra hircus aegagrus). J. Vet. Med. Sci., 68: 1379–1381.
https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.68.1379 - Lee H.G., Bok E.Y., Seo S.Y., Cho A., Jung Y., Kang S., Hur T.Y., Oh S.I. (2025). Evidence of in-utero Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in two pregnant goats: PCR detection, bacterial isolation, and molecular genotyping. J. Vet. Sci., 26: e55.
https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.25029 - Leite F.L., Stokes K.D., Robbe-Austerman S., Stabel J.R. (2013). Comparison of fecal DNA extraction kits for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 25: 27–34.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638712466395 - Lilenbaum W., Marassi C.D., Oelemann W.M.R. (2007 a). Paratuberculosis: an update. Braz. J. Microbiol., 38: 580–590.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822007000400001 - Lilenbaum W., Souza T.M., Fonseca L.S. (2007 b). Seroprevalence of paratuberculosis in goats in Belgium. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol., 120: 334–337.
- Lin H.C., Chong W.H., Huang H.H., Chou C.C., Tsai Y.L., Chu C.S., Shih W.L., Lai J.M., Su Y.C. (2018). Seroprevalence and molecular identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in farmed goats in Central-Southern Taiwan. Taiwan Vet. J., 44: 189–196.
https://doi.org/10.1142/S1682648518500087 - Lybeck K.R., Storset A.K., Djønne B., Valheim M., Olsen I. (2011). Faecal shedding detected earlier than immune responses in goats naturally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Res. Vet. Sci., 91: 32–39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.08.012 - Maity M., Thakur M., Gupta V. (2017). Detection of paratuberculosis in migratory Gaddi sheep of Himachal Pradesh using pathological techniques. Int. J. Livest. Res., 7: 236–246.
https://doi.org/10.5455/ijlr.20170812041717 - Malone A.N., Fletcher D.M., Vogt M.B., Meyer S.K., Hess A.M., Eckstein T.M. (2013). Early weight development of goats experimentally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. PLoS One, 8: 84049.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084049 - Manjunatha R.G.B., Shivasharanappa N., Mishra A.K., Souvik P., Sharma D.K. (2012). Pathology of naturally occurring paratuberculosis in caprine. Indian J. Vet. Pathol., 36: 221–223.
- Manning E.J.B., Collins M.T. (2001). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: pathogen, pathogenesis and diagnosis. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 20: 133–150.
https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.20.1.1275 - Mendes A., Silva M.L., Ferreira J. (2004 a). Serological survey of paratuberculosis in sheep and goats in Portugal. Small Rumin. Res., 55: 201–205.
- Mendes S., Boinas F., Albuquerque T., Fernandes L., Afonso A., Amado A. (2004 b). Epidemiological studies on paratuberculosis in small ruminants in Portugal. Epidemiol. Sante Anim., 45: 61–71.
- Mercier P., Baudry C., Beaudeau F., Seegers H. (2010 a). Estimation of herd- and animal-level prevalence of paratuberculosis in French dairy goats. Prev. Vet. Med., 94: 136–142.
- Mercier P., Baudry C., Beaudeau F., Seegers H., Malher X. (2010 b). Estimated prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in herds of dairy goats in France. Vet. Rec., 167: 412–415.
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c4454 - Millar D., Ford J., Sanderson J., Withey S., Tizard M., Doran T., Hermon-Taylor J. (1996). IS900 PCR to detect Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in retail supplies of whole pasteurized cows’ milk in England and Wales. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62: 3446–3452.
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.9.3446-3452.1996 - Miller J.M., Aljeny J.B., Payer R. (2002). PCR detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and Mycobacterium avium organisms in formalin-fixed tissues from culture-negative ruminants. Vet. Microbiol., 87: 15–23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00027-5 - Milner A.R., Mack W.N., Coates K.J., Hill J., Gill I., Sheldrick P. (1990). The sensitivity and specificity of a modified ELISA for the diagnosis of Johne’s disease from a field trial in cattle. Vet. Microbiol., 25: 193–198.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1135(90)90076-8 - Mishra P., Singh S.V., Bhatiya A.K., Singh P.K., Singh A.V., Sohal J.S. (2007). Real time estimates of prevalence of bovine Johne’s disease in dairy cattle herds in Mathura region of North India using fecal culture and indigenous ELISA kit and characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis by IS900 PCR. In: Proceedings of Ninth International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Tsukuba, Japan, Neilsen S.S. (ed.), pp. 220–223.
- Mishra P.S., Rath P.K., Panda S.K., Mishra B.P., Biswal S., Mishra S.R., Mishra J., Ranjan R. (2024 a). Active surveillance and associated epidemiological risk factors of caprine para-tuberculosis in selected district of Odisha, India. Vet. Res. Forum, 15: 343–349.
- Mishra S., Dash B.B., Sahoo N., Panda S.K. (2024 b). Breed-wise seroprevalence of Johne’s disease in Ganjam, Black Bengal and Raighar goats of eastern India. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 94: 112–117.
- Mohanty B.K., Rath P.K., Panda S.K., Mishra B.P. (2022). Pathological evaluation of mastitis in goats and changes in milk composition. Indian J. Small Rumin., 28: 154–160.
https://doi.org/10.5958/0973-9718.2022.00029.0 - Momotani E. (2012). Epidemiological situation and control strategies for paratuberculosis in Japan. Jpn. J. Vet. Res., 60: S19–S29.
- Moyano R.D., Colombatti Olivieri M.A., Basconez González M., Garrido J.M., Juste R.A., Alonso M.N. (2026). Specificity evaluation of a polyprotein-based ELISA designed for the detection of paratuberculosis in multiple species. Vet. Med. Int., 7325758.
https://doi.org/10.1155/vmi/7325758 - Mpenda F., Buza J. (2019). Seroprevalence of paratuberculosis in goats and sheep in Arusha, Northern Tanzania. Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ., 3: 541–545.
- Mukartal S.Y., Rathnamma D., Narayanaswamy H.D., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K., Singh M., Hemati Z., Nishanth C., Pachoori A., Dhama K., Singh S. (2017). Assessment of ovine Johne’s disease in the Mandya sheep breed in South India using multiple diagnostic tests and bio-typing of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection. Cogent Food Agric., 3: 1298391.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2017.1298391 - Naser S.A., Schwartz D., Shafran I. (2000). Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from breast milk of Crohn’s disease patients. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 95: 1094–1095.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2000.01954.x - Naser S.A., Sagramsingh S.R., Naser A.S., Thanigachalam S. (2014). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis causes Crohn’s disease in some inflammatory bowel disease patients. World J. Gastroenterol., 20: 7403–7415.
https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i23.7403 - NASR (2003). Diagnosis and control of Johne’s disease. National Academy of Sciences Report. Committee on Diagnosis and Control of Johne’s Disease, National Research Council (US). National Academies Press, Washington DC, USA. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207652/ (accessed 10 Jan 2025). - Navarro J.A., Sanchez J., Buendia A.J. (2025). Value of anatomopathological examination in goats with a positive comparative intradermal tuberculin test as part of a tuberculosis control programme. Vet. Rec., 196: e4963.
https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.4963 - OIE (2004). Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. 5th ed. World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), Paris, France.
- Ozturk M., Dortbudak M.B., Bekmez B., Biagini L., Altuğ N., Rossi G., Ozturk Y., Di Cerbo A. (2025). Oxidative stress and apoptotic markers in goats naturally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Pathogens, 14: 593. doi: 10.3390/pathogens14060593
- Paliwal O.P., Laikrishna, Kulshrestha S.B. (1984 a). Diagnosis of Johne’s disease in sheep by faecal smear examination and intradermal test. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis., 5: 73–75.
- Paliwal O.P., Singh S.N., Gupta R.K. (1984 b). Paratuberculosis in sheep in Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54: 231–234.
- Park H.T., Park H.E., Cho Y.I., Kim E.H., Jung M., Shin S.W., Lee S.H., Kim D.Y., Yoo H.S. (2017). Potential biomarkers as an indicator of vertical transmission of Johne’s disease in a Korean native cattle farm. J. Vet. Sci., 18: 343–349.
https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2017.18.S1.343 - Pérez V., Marín J.F.G., Badiola J.J. (1996). Description and classification of different types of lesion associated with natural paratuberculosis infection in sheep. J. Comp. Pathol., 114: 107–122.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9975(96)80001-6 - Pithua P., Kollias N.S. (2012). Estimated prevalence of caprine paratuberculosis in Boer goat herds in Missouri, USA. Vet. Med. Int., 674085.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/674085 - Plain K.M., Marsh I.B., Waldron A.M., Galea F., Whittington A.M., Saunders V.F., Begg D.J., de Silva K., Purdie A.C., Whittington R.J. (2014). High-throughput direct fecal PCR assay for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in sheep and cattle. J. Clin. Microbiol., 52: 745–757.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.03233-13 - Pradhan A.K., Mitchell R.M., Kramer A.J., Zurakowski M.J., Fyock T.L., Whitlock R.H., Smith J.M., Hovingh E., Van Kessel J.A.S., Karns J.S., Schukken Y.H. (2011). Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in a longitudinal study of three dairy herds. J. Clin. Microbiol., 49: 893–901.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01107-10 - Quintas H., Mínguez González O., Vila A.G., Pérez V., Coelho A.C. (2021). A serosurvey of Mycobacterium avium subsp. para-tuberculosis infection of goats in the North of Portugal. Acta Vet. Hung., 70: 1–8. doi:10.1556/004.2021.00051.
- Rahman M.Z. (1985 a). Prevalence of paratuberculosis in sheep detected by Ziehl–Neelsen staining. Indian J. Anim. Health, 24: 45–49.
- Rahman S.K. (1985 b). Clinicopathological studies of paratuberculosis in sheep and goat and its therapy. Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, C.V.Sc. & A.H., OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
- Raizman E.A. (2007). Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Crohn’s disease: that is what epidemiology is all about. Book of Abstracts and Scientific Program of the 9th International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Tsukuba International Congress Center, Japan, pp. 81.
- Randall S.L., Collins M.T. (1992). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: factors that influence mycobactin dependence. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 15: 239–246.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0732-8893(92)90119-E - Rasper-Hössinger M., Scherrer S., Stephan R., Seehusen F. (2025). Stereotypic immune response in Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection among different Swiss caprine genotypes. Vet. Pathol., 62: 728–739. doi: 10.1177/03009858251322726.
- Rawat K.D., Chaudhary S., Kumar N., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K., Singh S.V., Dhama K., Deb R. (2014). Economic losses in a commercial dairy farm due to the outbreak of Johne’s disease in India. Res. J. Vet. Pract., 2: 73–77.
https://doi.org/10.14737/journal.rjvp/2.5.73.77 - Reddacliff L.A., Vadali A., Whittington R.J. (2003). The effect of decontamination protocols on the numbers of sheep strain Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolated from tissues and faeces. Vet. Microbiol., 95: 271–282.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(03)00181-0 - Rossiter C.A., Henning W.R. (2001). Isolation of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis from thin market cows at slaughter. J. Anim. Sci., 79: 113.
- Royo M., Elguezábal N., Arrazuria, R., Benavides J., Fernández M. (2025). Effect of paratuberculosis vaccination before and after oral experimental infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in goats. Vet. Q., 45: 2566363. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2025.2566363.
- Scherrer S., Stephan R., Zumthor J.P., Kipar A., Seehusen F. (2019). Morphological and molecular characterization of a new Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis S-type strain genotype in goats. Front. Vet. Sci., 6: 250.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2019.00250 - Schrott J., Sodoma E., Dünser M., Tichy A., Khol J.L. (2023). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in sheep and goats in Austria: seroprevalence, risk factors and detection from boot swab samples. Animals, 13: 1517.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13091517 - Sechi L.A., Dow C.T. (2015). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis zoonosis – the hundred year war – beyond Crohn’s disease. Front. Immunol., 6: 96.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2015.00096 - Sechi L.A., Scanu A.M., Molicotti P., Cannas S., Mura M., Dettori G., Fadda G., Zanetti S. (2005). Detection and isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from intestinal mucosal biopsies of patients with and without Crohn’s disease in Sardinia. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 100: 1529–1536.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41415.x - Senturk S.E., Metcitoglu Z.A., Ulgen M., Borum E., Temizel E., Kasap S. (2009). Evaluation of serum iron and iron binding capacity in cows with paratuberculosis. Tierarztl. Prax. Ausg. G. Grosstiere Nutztiere, 37: 375–378.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1623829 - Sevilla I.A., Molina E., Elguezabal N., Pérez V., Garrido J.M., Juste R.A. (2015). Detection of mycobacteria, Mycobacterium avium subspecies, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex by a novel tetraplex real-time PCR assay. J. Clin. Microbiol., 53: 930–940.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.03168-14 - Shabana I.I., Aljohani A.A. (2020). Sero-surveillance of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in ruminants in Medina. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res., 7: 69.
https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2020.g395 - Shah I.H., Darzi M.M., Mir M.S. (2012). Comparative efficacy of rectal pinch, faecal smear and faecal polymerase chain reaction tests for surveillance of paratuberculosis in goats (Capra hircus). SKUAST J. Res., 14: 17–23.
- Sharma S., Singh S.V., Sangwan N., Singh V., Chaubey K.K., Gupta S., Singh M. (2017). Metabolic adjustments as signatures for pathogenesis and diagnosis of Johne’s disease in goats. Haryana Veterinarian, 56: 179–183.
- Sheather A.L. (1918). Johne’s disease. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 13: 23–31.
- Shisodiya A.S., Panwar A., Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Singh A.V., Tiwari A., Singh B., Kumar A. (2009). Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, an animal pathogen, in the population of animal keepers of Ghaziabad and Saharanpur districts of North India using multiple diagnostic tests. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis., 30: 42–44.
- Shulaw W.P. (1900). Johne’s disease in sheep and goat. Ohio State University Fact Sheet, Vet. Prev. Med., pp. 1–7.
- Singh S.V., Vihan V.S. (2004). Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in goat milk. Small Rumin. Res., 54: 231–235.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2003.12.002 - Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Gupta V.K., Kumar S., Vohra J. (2007 a). Sero-prevalence of paratuberculosis in young kids using ‘Bison type’ Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis antigen in plate ELISA. Small Rumin. Res., 70: 89–92.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2005.11.019 - Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Singh N.P. (2007 b). Seroprevalence of Johne’s disease in Jakhrana, Sirohi and Marwari goat breeds using serological tests. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 77: 1041–1044.
- Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Singh N.P. (2007 c). Evaluation of an indigenous ELISA for diagnosis of Johne’s disease and its comparison with commercial kits. Indian J. Microbiol., 47: 251–258.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-007-0046-2 - Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Vikram Y., Kharche S.D. (2007 d). Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Barbari and Sirohi breeds of goats in semi-arid regions of North India. Haryana Veterinarian, 46: 104–106.
- Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Singh A.V., Sohal J.S. (2007 e). Comparative prevalence of Johne’s disease in Barbari and Sirohi goat breeds using microscopy and indigenous ELISA. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 77: 1081–1085.
- Singh S.V., Vohra J., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S. (2007 f). Presence and characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from vaginal secretion of post parturient farm goats using culture, IS900 PCR and ELISA kit. Book of Abstracts and Scientific Program of the 9th International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Tsukuba International Congress Center, Japan, p. 100.
- Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh R., Sharma S., Shukla N., Misra S., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Kumar H., Patil P.K., Misra P. (2008). Seroprevalence of bovine Johne’s disease in buffaloes and cattle population of North India using indigenous ELISA kit based on native Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis ‘Bison type’ genotype of goat origin. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 31: 419–433.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2007.06.002 - Singh A.V., Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Swain N., Rajindran A.S., Vinodh O.R. (2009 a). Multiple tests based prevalence estimates of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in elite farms of goats and sheep. Indian J. Small Rumin., 15: 178–182.
- Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Singh A.V., Sohal J.S. (2009 b). Breed-wise susceptibility of goats to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in semi-arid and arid regions of India. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 41: 135–142.
- Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Singh A.V. (2010 a). Seroprevalence of Johne’s disease in goats from North India using ELISA. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 80: 123–127.
- Singh P.K., Singh S.V., Kumar H., Sohal J.S., Singh A.V. (2010 b). Diagnostic application of IS900 PCR using blood as a source sample for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in early and subclinical cases of caprine paratuberculosis. Vet. Med. Int., 2010: 748621.
https://doi.org/10.4061/2010/748621 - Singh S.V., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Mahour K. (2010 c). Sero-surveillance of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in domestic livestock in North India using indigenous absorbed ELISA test. J. Adv. Lab. Res. Biol., 1: 1–4.
https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/636038 - Singh A.V., Singh S.V., Singh P.K., Sohal J.S., Singh M.K. (2011). High prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (‘Indian bison type’) in animal attendants suffering from gastrointestinal complaints who work with goat herds endemic for Johne’s disease in India. Int. J. Infect. Dis., 15: 677–683.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2011.04.013 - Singh S., Singh A., Kumar A., Singh P., Deb R., Verma A., Kumar A., Tiwari R., Chakraborty S., Dhama K. (2013 a). Survival mechanisms of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis within host species and in the environment – a review. Nat. Sci., 5: 710–723.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ns.2013.56088 - Singh K., Chandel B.S., Dadawala A.I., Singh S.V., Chauhan H.C., Singh B., Agrawal N.D., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K. (2013 b). Incidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Mehsana breed of goats from South Gujarat using multiple tests. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 1: 28–31.
- Singh S.V., Naveen K., Chaubey K.K., Saurabh G., Rawat K.D. (2013 c). Bio-presence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in Indian livestock farms. Res. Opin. Anim. Vet. Sci., 3: 401–406.
- Singh S.V., Sohal J.S., Kumar N., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K., Rawat K.D., Chakraborty S., Tiwari R., Dhama K. (2014). Recent approaches in diagnosis and control of mycobacterial infections with special reference to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 2: 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.14737/journal.aavs/2014/2.1s.1.12 - Singh M., Gupta S., Chaubey K.K., Singh S.V., Sohal J.S. (2019). Profiling of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in the milk of lactating goats using antigen-antibody based assays. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 64: 53–60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2019.02.006 - Sohal J.S., Singh S.V., Subodh S., Singh A.V., Singh P.K., Sheoran N. (2007). Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis diagnosis and strain typing: present status and future developments. Indian J. Exp. Biol., 45: 843–852.
- Sohal J.S., Arsenault J., Leboeuf A., Hélie P., Buczinski S., Robinson Y., Labrecque O., Lachapelle V., Fecteau G., L’Homme Y. (2019). Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis C-type and S-type isolated from sheep and goats by using a combination of MIRU-VNTR loci. Can. J. Vet. Res., 83: 160–167.
- Sonawane G.G., Tripathi B.N. (2013). Comparison of a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) with conventional PCR, bacterial culture and ELISA for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in sheep showing pathology of Johne’s disease. SpringerPlus, 2: 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-45 - Sonawane G.G., Narnaware S.D., Tripathi B.N. (2016). Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in ruminants in different parts of India. Int. J. Mycobacteriol., 5: 59–65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmyco.2015.11.003 - Srivastava A.K., More B.K. (1987 a). Prevalence of Johne’s disease in local, Angora and crossbred goats in Maharashtra. Livestock Adviser, 12: 33–37.
- Srivastava S.K., More T.A. (1987 b). Occurrence of Johne’s disease in goats in Maharashtra. Indian Vet. J., 64: 1001–1004.
- Stanitznig A., Khol J.L., Lambacher B., Franz S., Wittek T., Kralik P., Slana I., Vasickova P. (2017). Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and hepatitis E in New World camelids in Austria. Vet. Rec., 181: 46.
https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.104246 - Stefanova E.P., Paz-Sánchez Y., Quesada-Canales Ó., Quintana-Montesdeoca M.P., Espinosa de los Monteros A., Ramírez A.S., Fernández A., Andrada M. (2024 a). Caprine paratuberculosis seroprevalence and immune response to anti-Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis vaccination on the Canary Islands, Spain. Vet. Sci., 11: 388.
https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11090388 - Stefanova E.P., Sierra E., Fernández A., Quesada-Canales O., Paz-Sánchez Y., Colom-Rivero A., Espinosa de los Monteros A., Herráez P., Domínguez L., Bezos J., Pérez-Sancho M., Moreno I., Risalde M.A., Andrada M. (2024 b). Detection of caprine paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in pre- and post-vaccinated herds: morphological diagnosis, lesion grading, and bacterial identification. Front. Vet. Sci., 11: 1395928.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1395928 - Sweeney R.W., Whitlock R.H., Hamir A.N., Rosenberger A.E., Herr S.A. (1992). Isolation of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis after oral inoculation in uninfected cattle. Am. J. Vet. Res., 53: 1312–1314.
https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.1992.53.08.1312 - Sweeney R.W., Whitlock R.H., Buckley C.L., Spencer P.A. (1995). Evaluation of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of paratuberculosis in dairy cattle. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 7: 488–493.
https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879500700411 - Sweeney R.W., Collins M.T., Koets A.P., Mc-Guirk S.M., Roussel A.J. (2012). Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in cattle and other susceptible species. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 26: 1239–1250.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.01019.x - Tasara T., Hoelzle L.E., Stephan R. (2005). Development and evaluation of a Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis-specific multiplex PCR assay. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 104: 279–287.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.03.009 - Thakur M., Maity M., Sharma S., Gupta V.K. (2019 a). Comparative evaluation of different diagnostic techniques for detection of naturally occurring paratuberculosis in Gaddi goats. Small Rumin. Res., 174: 92–98.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2019.01.005 - Thakur S., Vaid R.K., Katoch R., Nagal K.B. (2019 b). Comparative sensitivity of different diagnostic methods for Johne’s disease in Gaddi goats. J. Parasit. Dis., 43: 251–257.
- Tharwat M., Ali H., Alkheraif A.A. (2025). Paratuberculosis in sheep and goats: Pathogenesis, diagnostic findings, and control strategies. Open Vet. J., 15: 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i1.1 - Thoresen O.F., Falk K., Evensen Ø. (1994). Comparison of immunohistochemistry, acid-fast staining, and cultivation for detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in goats. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 6: 195–199.
https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879400600210 - Tiwari A., VanLeeuwen J.A., McKenna S.L., Keefe G.P., Barkema H.W. (2006). Johne’s disease in Canada: Part I: Clinical symptoms, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prevalence in dairy herds. Can. Vet. J., 47: 874.
- Tripathi B.N. (2007). Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease): the history and a critical appraisal. In: Proceedings of National Seminar and Workshop on Johne’s Disease, Izatnagar, India, Tripathi B.N., Somavanshi R. (eds), pp. 13–16.
- Tripathi B.N., Munjal S.K., Paliwal O.P. (2002). An overview of paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in animals. Indian J. Vet. Pathol., 26: 1–10.
- Twort F.W., Ingram G.L.Y. (1912). A method for isolating and cultivating the Mycobacterium enteritidis chronicæ pseudotuberculosæ bovis, Jöhne, and some experiments on the preparation of a diagnostic vaccine for pseudotuberculous enteritis of bovines. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 84: 517–542.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1912.0011 - Vansnick E., De Rijk P., Vercammen F., Geysen D., Rigouts L., Portaels F. (2004). Newly developed primers for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet. Microbiol., 100: 197–204.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.02.006 - Verma D.K. (2013). MAP: An emerging animal pathogen of global concern. Adv. Biomed. Res., 4: 1–8.
- Waddell L.A., Rajić A., Stärk K.D., McEwen S.A. (2015). The zoonotic potential of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analyses of the evidence. Epidemiol. Infect., 143: 3135–3157.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026881500076X - Whitlock R.H., Wells S.J., Sweeney R.W., Van Tiem J. (2000). ELISA and fecal culture for paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease): sensitivity and specificity of each method. Vet. Microbiol., 77: 387–398.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00324-2 - Whittington R.J., Marsh I., Turner M.J., McAllister S., Choy E., Eamens G.J., Marshall D.J., Ottaway S. (1998). Rapid detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in clinical samples from ruminants and in spiked environmental samples by modified BACTEC 12B radiometric culture and direct confirmation by IS900 PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol., 36: 701–707.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.36.3.701-707.1998 - Whittington R.J., Marsh I.B., Saunders V., Grant I.R., Juste R., Sevilla I.A., Manning E.J., Whitlock R.H. (2011). Culture phenotypes of genomically and geographically diverse Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolates from different hosts. J. Clin. Microbiol., 49: 1822–1830.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00210-11 - Wimalasena S.H.M.P., Seo S.Y., Lee H.G., Jung Y.H., Do Y.J., Cho A., Choe C., Yoo A.S., Kang S., Lee J.H., Yoo H.S., Bok E.Y. (2025). Development of visual dye-based loop-mediated isothermal amplification assays for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis detection in ruminants. J. Vet. Sci., 26: e31.
https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.24201 - Windsor P.A. (2015). Paratuberculosis in sheep and goats. Vet. Microbiol., 181: 161–169.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.07.019 - Yokomizo Y., Merkal R.S., Lyle P.A. (1983). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of bovine immunoglobulin G1 antibody to a protoplasmic antigen of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Am. J. Vet. Res., 44: 2205–2207.
https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.1983.44.11.2205 - Zhao L., Wang Y., Wang J.L., Zhao W.H., Cheng H.X., Ma Y.M., Chai H.L., Zhang Z.S., Wang L.F., Miao Z.Q., Ding Y.L. (2021). Serological investigation and genotyping of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in sheep and goats in Inner Mongolia, China. PLoS One, 16: 0256628.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256628
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2025-0106 | Journal eISSN: 2300-8733 (formerly 1642-3402) | Journal ISSN: 1642-3402
Language: English
Submitted on: Jan 24, 2025
Accepted on: Sep 22, 2025
Published on: Oct 5, 2026
Published by: National Research Institute of Animal Production
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2026 Prasana Kumar Rath, Pragnya Smita Mishra, Bidyut Prava Mishra, Biswaranjan Paital, Sonam Sarita Bal, Pragyani Dixit, Jyotiprabha Mishra, Manoj Kumar Jena, Dipak Kumar Sahoo, published by National Research Institute of Animal Production
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.