Figure 1.
Techniques used in top-down and bottom-up approaches for the nanoparticle synthesis
Figure 2.
Methods of na noparticle characterization
Table 1.
List of different methods for preparing nanoparticles loaded with thermosensitive therapeutic agents
| Method | Description | Therapeutic agents | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| 1. Cross-linking techniques | |||
| a. Physical cross linking | This method allows ionic cross-linking between nanoparticles and cross-linking agent. | Insulin, tetanus toxoid | Chen et al., 2023; Kabiri et al., 2021 |
| b. Chemical cross-linking | Chemical cross-linking with the help of glutaraldehyde or ascorbyl palmitate and p-phthalaldehyde. | NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), antineoplastic, opioids, antifungal drugs | Dey et al., 2022 |
| 2. Drying methods | The process of removal of water or solvent by evaporation from liquid, solid or semisolids. The common methods of drying are spray, freeze and supercritical drying | BSA (bovine serum albumin), salmon calcitonin | Abdelkader et al., 2018 |
| 3. Reverse micellar method | Organic solvent mixture containing nanoparticles along with therapeutic agent has been kept overnight after adding the cross-linking agent. Further, drug loaded nanoparticles have removed by centrifugation. | Anticancer drugs | Liao et al., 2021 |
| 4. High pressure emulsification | This procedure implies high pressure emulsification of polymer solution into an aqueous solution then removal of organic solvent is done by continuous stirring or by evaporation. | Lipid soluble drugs | Mehanna and Mneimneh, 2021 |
| 5. Emulsion-diffusion method | The encapsulated polymer is mixed with water-miscible solvent such as benzyl alcohol, propylene carbonate. Further, emulsification of polymer-water saturated solvent phase is performed in aqueous solution containing stabilizer and then formation of nanoparticles has occurred according to oil : polymer ratio. | Doxorubicin, cyclosporine | Chaudhary et al., 2021; Pandey et al., 2022 |
| 6. Solvent displacement and precipitation | This method includes precipitation of preformed polymer from organic solution and diffusion of organic solvent in presence and absence of surfactant. | Poor soluble drugs | Khan et al., 2022 |
Table 2.
Different types of nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications
| Nanoparticles | Application | References |
|---|---|---|
| Silica based | Drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensors, delivery of vaccine against Anaplasma marginale in cattle | Bruckmann et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2024 |
| Selenium based | Enhance nutrient absorption and boost immunity in animals | Malyugina et al., 2021 |
| Silver | As antimicrobial and anticancer agents, drug delivery, as imaging probes and as diagnostics | Harish et al., 2022 |
| Zinc oxide | As antiviral and anticancer agents, drug delivery carriers, as a growth promotor in pigs | Krishnan et al., 2021; Baholet et al., 2022 |
| Gold | Tumor detection, drug and vaccine delivery, photodermal and photodynamic therapy | Reddy et al., 2023; Danchuk et al., 2023 |
| Iron oxide | Magnetic resonance imaging, cancer diagnosis and treatment | Wu et al., 2022 |
| Polymeric NPs | Delivery of anthrax and tetanus toxoid vaccines, and used as drug carrier | Al-Nemrawi et al., 2022 |
| Carbon and grapheme quantum dots | Bioimaging, cancer therapy, gene and drug delivery | Osorio et al., 2024 |
| Liposomes | Cancer therapy (paclitaxel and vincristine) in dogs, Toxoplasma gondii vaccine in sheep, avian colibacillosis vaccine in chickens | Ahmad et al., 2021 |
| Dendrimers | Drug delivery, therapeutics against viral and parasitic diseases and cancer | Folliero et al., 2021; Filipczak et al., 2021 |
Table 3.
Various therapeutic applications of nanoparticles in veterinary sector
| Categories | Nanoparticles | Species of animals | Application | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Drug delivery and therapeutics | Doxorubicin, paclitaxel and vincristine loaded liposomes | Canine | Canine metastatic osteosarcoma | Walewska et al., 2023; Ahmad et al., 2021 |
| Curcumin loaded silver nanoparticles | Bovine mastitis causing bacteria | Bovine mastitis | Vo-van et al., 2023 | |
| Gold nanoparticles | Canine tumors | Gold NP-mediated photothermal therapy for canine osteosarcoma | Malik et al., 2023 | |
| Polymeric chitosan nanoparticles | Chicken, cow | Colibacillosis, metritis | Carvalho et al., 2021 | |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | Canine, equines and other animal species | Neoplastic diseases, mastitis and wound healing | Rahman et al., 2022 | |
| Graphene oxide | Cow | Bovine mastitis | Neculai-valeanu et al., 2021 | |
| Vaccines | Gold nanoparticles | Poultry and bovines | Vaccines for influenza, foot-and-mouth disease and listeriosis | Ingrole et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2021; Dykman, 2020 |
| Silica based NPs | Cattle | Vaccine for Anaplasma marginale infection | Kumar et al., 2024 | |
| Oxidized carbon NPs | Mice | Subunit vaccine for Mycobacterium tuberculosis | Sawutdeechaikul et al., 2019 | |
| Polymeric NPs | Mice | Anthrax and tetanus toxoid vaccine | Al-Nemrawi et al., 2022 | |
| Liposomes and chitosan polymer | Chicken | Influenza, Newcastle disease, and avian colibacillosis | Yang et al., 2020; Attia et al., 2021; Ahmad et al., 2021 | |
| Dendrimers | Mice | Ebola virus, Toxoplasma gondii and H1N1 influenza | Kisakova et al., 2023 | |
| Disease diagnosis | Nanosensor of gold nanoparticle quantum dots | Cattle | Bovine tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease and bovine mastitis | Tewari et al., 2021; Rios et al., 2024 |
| Nucleic based nanodiagnostic | Livestock | Viral, bacterial and parasitic infection | Kumar et al., 2024 | |
| Wearable nanosensor | Livestock | Diseases monitoring, behavior tracking, pregnancy detection and nutritional monitoring | Alipio and Villena, 2024 | |
| Nutrition | Lipid nanoparticles | Dairy cow | Enhance the rumen bypass efficiency of amino acids | Albuquerque et al., 2020 |
| Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles | Equine | Reduces release of urea | Reddy et al., 2020 | |
| Selenium NPs | Ruminants | Better growth and enhance immune function | Malyugina et al., 2021 | |
| ZnO NPs | Pig | Improve nutrients absorption as feed additives | Baholet et al., 2022 | |
| Alginate chitosan glycerol NPs | Ruminants | Encapsulating glycerol to bypass rumen fermentation | Hashem and Ganzalez Bulnes, 2021 | |
| Reproduction | Propylene glycol | Sheep | Estrous synchronization | Santos-Jimenez et al., 2020; Saadeldin et al., 2020 |
| GnRH | Enhanced follicle growth and ovulation | |||
| GnRH chitosan TPP Nps | Rabbit | |||
| SeNPs | Camel | Enhance the cryoresistance of camel epididymal spermatozoa | Shahin et al., 2020 | |
| ZnONPs | Goat | Enhance post-thaw semen quality | Abedin et al., 2023 | |
| Gamma-oryzanol nanoparticles | Rooster | Enhance the post-thaw quality of rooster sperm | Najafi et al., 2022 | |
| Biochips | Ruminants | Fetus gender determination | Wang et al., 2022 | |
| Milk production | ZnNPs | Guanzhong dairy goats | Improve lactation and metabolism by modulating the rumen microbiota | Xie at al., 2024 |
| ZnNPs | Barbari goats | Effectively reduced somatic cell count, indicating improved udder health | Shafi et al., 2020 | |
| ZnNPs | Baladi goats | Increase in milk yield and upregulation of genes associated with milk production | Mansour et al., 2025 | |
| SeNPs | Dairy goats | Increased milk yield, milk fat, and lactose content | Ying et al., 2025 | |
| CuNPs | In vitro (bovine mastitis pathogens) | Biofilms from S. aureus, E. coli, others nearly fully inhibited | Lange et al., 2021 | |
| Meat production | Curcumin nanospheres | Pigs | Enhanced growth performance, improved meat quality, better intestinal health | Moniruzzaman et al., 2023 |
| Green zinc oxide nanoparticles | Bonsmara steers | Negative effects on growth and meat quality due to potential toxicity | Gamedze et al., 2024 | |
| ZnO/Pectin bionanocomposite films | Poultry | Extended shelf life, reduced microbial growth | Przybyszewska et al., 2023 | |
| Chitosan/Starch films with cellulose nanofibers and cinnamon oil | Beef | Significant microbial load reduction, improved preservation | Sreekanth et al., 2024 | |
| Nanostructured lipid carriers with savory essential oil | Beef | Reduced microbial growth, lower pH and spoilage indicators | Ghasemi et al., 2024 | |
| Chitosan nanoparticles | Pigs | Improved skeletal muscle mass, enhanced meat quality | Gelaye, 2024 | |
| Stem cell research | Magnetic nanoparticles | Human lung stem cells | Stem cell level and sorting | Liu et al., 2020 |
| Gold nanorods | Human and animals | Stem cell imaging and tracking | Dong et al., 2021 | |
| Quantum rods | ||||
| Polymeric nanoparticles | ||||
| Iron oxide |
Figure 3.
Diverse applications of nanotechnology in the veterinary sector