Figure. 1.
Figure. 2.
Figure. 3.
Advantages and disadvantages of UAE, SFE, and MAE
| Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) | Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) | Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) |
|---|---|---|
| Advantages | ||
| short extraction time | highly specified and selective extraction | a most straightforward and rapid method |
| Lover extraction time | solvent-free extraction | lower extraction time |
| high yield extraction | fragrances and aromas remain same | selective heating of the sample solvent mixture |
| low extraction temperature | low-cost method, affordable for industry | |
| Disadvantages | ||
| not applicable to the industry | high investment required | after the process, centrifugation or filtration is required |
| the solvent cannot be removed | high usage of polar substances | not appropriate for extraction of heat-sensitive compounds |
| only a batch system is possible | amino acids, inorganic salts, and proteins are insoluble | non-selective for nonpolar compounds |
Caffeine and nicotine with detection methods in WWTPs_ Mean (min-max) of concentrations found in the influents and effluents of the WWTPs
| Analytical method | Influent (ng/L) | Effluent (ng/L) | Removal efficiency (%) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry | 2.00 × 104 - 3.80 × 104 | 50.0-410 | 97.9-99.9 | (80) |
| 1.34 × 103 (873-2.10 × 103) | 103 (35.0-329) | 92.3 | (81) | |
| 17.0-1.45 × 105 | NA | >99.0 | (30) | |
| 2.87 × 103 | 748 | 73.9 | (82) | |
| 5.20 × 103 | 44 | 99.2 | (83) | |
| 5.90 × 103 | 470 | 92 | (83) | |
| 7.50 × 103 | 48 | 99.4 | (83) | |
| 4.09 × 104 | 73 | 99.8 | (84) | |
| Liquid Chromatography - Electrospray IonizationMass Spectrometry | 2.82 × 104 (1.05 × 104- 5.60 × 104) | 440(ND-940) | 98.2 | (31) |
| 1.49 × 104 (1.66 × 103- 5.35 × 104) | 190(ND-523) | 98.7 | (31) | |
| 643(ND-1.93 × 103) | 50.3(ND-188) | 92.3 | (31) | |
| 615 (ND-1.85 × 103) | <LOQ (ND-29.3) | 100 | (31) | |
| 2.61 × 104 (1.70 × 104-3.62 × 104) | 336 (99.2-587) | 98.7 | (85) | |
| 362 (ND-883) | <LOQ (ND-34.0) | 100 | (31) | |
| 5.81 × 104 (213 - 9.66 × 104) | 416 (ND-1.18 × 103) | 99.3 | (31) | |
| Liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometer | 2.02 × 103 (35.8- 4.58 × 103) | 8.20 (2.50-414) | 99.6 | (86) |
| Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry | 3.00 × 104- 6.10 × 104 | 1.10 × 103 - 3.40 × 103 | 88.7-98.2 | (85) |
| Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry | 4.09 × 103 (102-5.60 × 103) | 138 (30.0-961) | 96.6 | (87) |
| 2.38 × 104 (1.04 × 103- 1.50 × 105) | 1.74 × 103 (148-3.42 × 104) | 92.7 | (88) | |
| 523-1.84 × 103 | 117-769 | 58.3-77.6 | (32) | |
| 1.75 × 103 | ND | 100 | (89) | |
| 2.90 × 104 | 2.02 × 103 | 93 | (84) | |
| High resolution-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry | 1.50 × 104 -1.96 × 104 | ND - 6.00 | 100 | (90) |