Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Summary of the literature evaluating new reduced-risk agricultural nematicides_
| Experimental venue | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nematicide | Nematode | Laboratory | Greenhouse | Field | Reference |
| Spirotetramat | Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi | Nursery plant | Chalanska et al. (2017) | ||
| Heterodera avenae | Wheat | Smiley et al. (2011, 2012) | |||
| Meloidogyne incognita | Lima bean | Lima bean | Jones et al. (2017) | ||
| M. incognita | X | Peach | Shirley et al. (2019) | ||
| M. incognita | Nursery plant | Nursery plant | Baidoo et al. (2017) | ||
| Meloidogyne spp. | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2009) | |||
| Mesocriconema xenoplax | X | Peach | Shirley et al. (2019) | ||
| M. xenoplax | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2009) | |||
| Pratylenchus neglectus | Wheat | Smiley et al. (2012) | |||
| Pratylenchus penetrans | Raspberry | Zasada et al. (2010) | |||
| Pratylenchus vulnus | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2011) | |||
| Rotylenchulus reniformis | X | Waisen (2015) | |||
| Tylenchulus semipenetrans | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2009) | |||
| Xiphinema americanum | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2009) | |||
| Xiphinema index | Multiple perennials | McKenry et al. (2009) | |||
| Fluopyram | Belonolaimus longicaudatus | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | ||
| Heterodera glycines | X | Soybean | Heiken (2017) | ||
| Meloidogyne hapla | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | X | Tomato | Wram and Zasada (2019) | ||
| M. incognita | X | Tomato | Faske and Hurd (2015) | ||
| M. incognita | X | Tomato | Heiken (2017) | ||
| M. incognita | Lima bean | Lima bean | Jones et al. (2017) | ||
| M. incognita | Cucumber | Hajihassani et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Carrot | Becker et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Tomato | Silva et al. (2019) | |||
| Meloidogyne javanica | Tomato | Desaeger and Watson (2019) | |||
| P. penetrans | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
| R. reniformis | x | Tomato | Faske and Hurd (2016) | ||
| Fluensulfone | B. longicaudatus | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | ||
| B. longicaudatus | Potato | Grabau et al. (2019) | |||
| Globodera pallida | Potato | Norshie et al. (2016) | |||
| Longidorus vineacola | Pepper | Oka (2019) | |||
| M. hapla | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | x | Tomato | Wram and Zasada (2019) | ||
| M. incognita | Carrot | Becker et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Tomato | Silva et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Lima bean | Lima bean | Jones et al. (2017) | ||
| M. incognita | Cucumber | Hajihassani et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Sweet Potato | Ploeg et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Cucumber | Morris et al. (2016) | |||
| M. javanica | Tomato | Desaeger and Watson (2019) | |||
| Paratrichodorus sp. | Potato | Grabau et al. (2019) | |||
| P. penetrans | Lettuce | Oka (2019) | |||
| P. penetrans | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
| P. thornei | Chickpea | Oka (2019) | |||
| Pratylenchus sp. | Potato | Grabau et al. (2019) | |||
| X. index | Fig | Oka (2019) | |||
| Fluazaindolizine | B. longicaudatus | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | ||
| M. hapla | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | x | Tomato | Wram and Zasada (2019) | ||
| M. incognita | Tomato | Silva et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Carrot | Becker et al. (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | X | Thoden and Wiles (2019) | |||
| M. incognita | Cucumber | Hajihassani et al. (2019) | |||
| M. javanica | Tomato | Desaeger and Watson (2019) | |||
| P. penetrans | Strawberry | Watson and Desaeger (2019) | |||
Characteristics of new synthetic nematicides as compared to older products (fumigant and carbamate nematicides)_
| Chemical name | Chemical structure | Water solubility | Soil 1/2 life | Mode-of-action | Signal words |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fumigant (1,3-D) |
| Gas | Short < 14 d | unknown | Danger |
| Carbamate (oxamyl) |
| 240,000 ppm | Short 7 d | AChEa | Danger |
| Fluensulfone |
| 545 ppm | Short 7-17 d | Beta oxidation inhibitor | Caution |
| Fluopyram |
| 10 ppm | Long > 200 d | SDHIb | Caution |
| Fluazaindolizine |
| 2000 ppm | Medium 30 d | unknown | TBD |
| Spirotetramat |
| 30 ppm | Short (< 1 d) | ACCc inhibitor | Warning |
| Tioxazafen |
| 1.24 PPM | Long (48-303 d) | Disrupts ribosomal activity | Caution |
Products that have been used as nematicides throughout history_
| Common namea | First use (country) | Product type/chemistry | Mode-of-actionb | Signal wordsc |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon disulfide | 1869 (FR) | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| Chloropicrin | 1920/1936 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger |
| Methyl bromide | 1932/1961 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger* |
| Formaldehyde | 1930 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| DD | 1943 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| EDB | 1945 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| DBCP | 1954 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| 1,3-D | 1954 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger |
| Metam sodium | 1954 | MIT generator | Multi-site | Danger |
| Fensulfothion | 1957 | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger** |
| Ethoprop | 1963 (US) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger |
| Aldicarb | 1965 (US) | Carbamate | AChE | Danger* |
| Dazomet | 1967 | MIT generator | Multi-site | Danger |
| Carbofuran | 1969 | Carbamate | AChE | Danger* |
| Fenamiphos | 1968 (DE) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger* |
| Oxamyl | 1972 (US) | Carbamate | AChE | Danger |
| Terbufos | 1974 (US) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger* |
| Enzone | 1978 | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger* |
| Cadusafos | 1990? (US) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger* |
| Imicyafos | 2010 (JPN) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger* |
| Fosthiazate | 1992 (JPN) | Organophosphate | AChE | Danger* |
| Ivermectin/Abamectin | 1981 (JPN) | Lactone | GluCl | Danger |
| Spirotetramat | 2008 (US) | Tetramic acid | LBI | Caution |
| DMDS | 2010 (US) | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger* |
| Methyl iodide | 2007 (US) | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger** |
| Allyl ITC | 2013 (US) | Fumigant | Multi-site | Danger |
| Tioxazafen (seed) | 2017 (US) | Oxadiazole | Unknown | Caution* |
| Fluensulfone | 2014 (US) | Thizaole | Unknown | Caution |
| Fluopyram | 2010 (US), 2013 (HND) | Benzamide | SDHI | Caution |
| Fluazaindolizine | 2020? | Carboxamide | Unknown | Caution |
Characteristics of the ideal nematicide_
| Grower perspective | Regulator perspective | |
|---|---|---|
| Intrinsic activity | Broad-spectrum, controls all parasitic nematodes | Selectivity (safe to non-target/beneficial organisms) |
| Soil behavior | Good soil movement and long soil residual activity | No leaching and low soil persistence |
| Plant behavior | Systemic activity, low phytotoxicity | No crop residues, no negative impact on produce quality |
| Application | Flexibility, low rates | Safe to handlers, low human toxicity |