Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Rethinking Acculturation and Military Transition: An Agenda for Military-Civilian Biculturalism, Reintegration, and Adjustment Cover

Rethinking Acculturation and Military Transition: An Agenda for Military-Civilian Biculturalism, Reintegration, and Adjustment

Open Access
|Apr 2025

References

  1. Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203135457
  2. Adler, A. B., & Sims, D. A. (2017). Enhancing resilience in an operational unit. Parameters: Journal of the US Army War College, 47, 8394. 10.55540/0031-1723.2838
  3. Albertson, K. (2019). Relational legacies impacting on veteran transition from military to civilian life: Trajectories of acquisition, loss, and reformulation of a sense of belonging. Illness, Crisis & Loss, 27(4), 255273. 10.1177/1054137319834773
  4. Atuel, H. R., & Castro, C. A. (2018). Military transition process and veteran identity. In E. L. Weiss & C. A. Castro (Eds.), American military life in the 21st century: Social, cultural, and economic issues and trends. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329545359_Military_Transition_Process_and_Veteran_Identity
  5. Avruch, K. (1998). Culture & conflict resolution. United States Institute of Peace Press. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_67-1
  6. Aycan, Z., & Berry, J. W. (1996). Impact of employment-related experiences on immigrants’ psychological well-being and adaption to Canada. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 28(3), 240251. 10.1037/0008-400X.28.3.240
  7. Benet-Martinez, V., & Haritatos, J. (2005). Bicultural identity integration (BII): Components and psychosocial antecedents. Journal of Personality, 73(4), 10151050. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00337.x
  8. Benet-Martínez, V., Leu, J., Lee, F., & Morris, M. W. (2002). Negotiating biculturalism: Cultural frame switching in biculturals with oppositional versus compatible cultural identities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(5), 492516. 10.1177/0022022102033005005
  9. Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In J. J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1989: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 201234). University of Nebraska Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1990-98659-004
  10. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 534. 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
  11. Birman, D. (1994). Acculturation and human diversity in a multicultural society. In E. J. Trickett, R. J. Watts, & D. Birman (Eds.), Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context (pp. 261284). Jossey-Bass/Wiley. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-98838-012
  12. Brewster, L., McWade, B., & Clark, S. J. A. (2021). A point of connection? Wellbeing, the veteran identity and older adults. Ageing & Society, 41(9), 19842005. 10.1017/S0144686X20000161
  13. Brunger, H., Serrato, J., & Ogden, J. (2013). “No man’s land”: The transition to civilian life. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 5(2), 86100. 10.1108/17596591311313681
  14. Burk, J. (2008). Military culture. In L. R. Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of violence, peace and conflict (2nd ed.). Elsevier Science & Technology: Credo Reference. https://dickinson.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?context=L&vid=01DICKINSON_INST:DICKINSON&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&isFrbr=true&tab=JumpStart2&docid=alma991000345089705226
  15. Castro, C. A., & Kintzle, S. (2014). Suicides in the military: The post-modern combat veteran and the Hemingway effect. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16(8), 460. 10.1007/s11920-014-0460-1
  16. Celenk, O., & Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2011). Assessment of acculturation: Issues and overview of measures. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 8(1), 122. 10.9707/2307-0919.1105
  17. Chishti, M., Rose, A., & Yale-Loehr, S. (2019, May 21). Noncitizens in the US military: Navigating national security concerns and recruitment needs. Migrationpolicy.org. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/noncitizens-us-military-national-security-concerns-recruitment-needs
  18. Cortina, J. M., Sheng, Z., Keener, S. K., Keeler, K. R., Grubb, L. K., Schmitt, N., Tonidandel, S., Summerville, K. M., Heggestad, E. D., & Banks, G. C. (2020). From alpha to omega and beyond! A look at the past, present, and (possible) future of psychometric soundness in the Journal of Applied Psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(12), 13511381. 10.1037/apl0000815
  19. Cunha, J. M., Sullivan, R., Can, M., & Yalcinkaya, H. (2014). Expedited citizenship for sale: Estimating the effect of Executive Order 13269 on noncitizen military enlistments. Applied Economics, 46(11), 12911300. 10.1080/00036846.2013.870658
  20. Daley, J. G. (1999). Understanding the military as an ethnic identity. In C. Munson & J. D. Daley (Eds.), Social Work Practice in the Military (pp. 291303). Taylor & Francis Ltd. 10.4324/9781315809564
  21. De Rosa, S., & Szvircsev Tresch, T. (2022). The Swiss Armed Forces’ reputation and integration function for recruits with migration backgrounds. In G. Scoppio & S. Greco (Eds.), The power of diversity in the armed forces: International perspectives on immigrant participation in the military (pp. 3455). McGill-Queen’s University Press. 10.1515/9780228013440-006
  22. Del Pilar, J. A., & Udasco, J. O. (2004). Deculturation: Its lack of validity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10(2), 169176. 10.1037/1099-9809.10.2.169
  23. Department of the Army. (2015). Army Doctrine Reference Publication 1: The Army Profession. https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/adrp1.pdf
  24. DiRamio, D. C., Ackerman, R., & Mitchell, R. L. (2008). From combat to campus: Voices of student-veterans. NASPA Journal, 45(1), 73102. 10.2202/1949-6605.1908
  25. Dragomir, C. I. (2014). Making the American immigrant soldier: Inclusion and resistance [Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan]. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1622289297/D755E26771A24663PQ/1
  26. Dragomir, C. I. (2023). Making the immigrant soldier: How race, ethnicity, class, and gender intersect in the US military. University of Illinois Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jj.982972
  27. Duel, J., Godier-McBard, L., MacLean, M. B., & Fossey, M. (2019). Challenging missions: Vulnerable veterans leaving the armed forces and promising avenues to support them. In C. A. Castro & S. Dursun (Eds.), Military veteran reintegration: Approach, management, and assessment of military veterans transitioning to civilian life (pp. 95134). Academic Press. 10.1016/B978-0-12-815312-3.00006-1
  28. Enloe, C. H. (2014). Bananas, beaches and bases: Making feminist sense of international politics (2nd ed.). University of California Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt6wqbn6
  29. Goodwin, G. F., Blacksmith, N., & Coats, M. R. (2018). The science of teams in the military: Contributions from over 60 years of research. American Psychologist, 73(4), 322333. 10.1037/amp0000259
  30. Hall, L. H. (2013). Military culture. In B. A. Moore & J. E. Barnett (Eds.), Military psychologists’ desk reference (pp. 2226). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/med:psych/9780199928262.003.0005
  31. Hayes, S. W., & Endale, E. (2018). “Sometimes my mind, it has to analyze two things”: Identity development and adaptation for refugee and newcomer adolescents. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 24(3), 283290. 10.1037/pac0000315
  32. Herman, A., & Yarwood, R. (2014). From services to civilian: The geographies of veterans’ post-military lives. Geoforum, 53, 4150. 10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.02.001
  33. Hodges, T. J. (2023). Moral injury, identity dissonance, and reintegration: A compendium of reintegration and survey of United States military veterans [Doctoral dissertation, Kennesaw State University]. Digital Commons Kennesaw State University. https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/incmdoc_etd/52
  34. Huynh, Q.-L., Benet-Martínez, V., & Nguyen, A.-M. D. (2018). Measuring variations in bicultural identity across US ethnic and generational groups: Development and validation of the Bicultural Identity Integration Scale-Version 2 (BIIS-2). Psychological Assessment, 30(12), 15811596. 10.1037/pas0000606
  35. Jiménez, J., Gómez, Á., Buhrmester, M. D., Vázquez, A., Whitehouse, H., & Swann, W. B. (2016). The Dynamic Identity Fusion Index: A new continuous measure of identity fusion for web-based questionnaires. Social Science Computer Review, 34(2), 215228. 10.1177/0894439314566178
  36. Joseph, J. S., Smith-MacDonald, L., Filice, M. C., & Smith, M. S. (2022). Reculturation: A new perspective on military-civilian transition stress. Military Psychology, 35(3), 193203. 10.1080/08995605.2022.2094175
  37. Karakayali, N. (2008). Duality and diversity in the lives of immigrant children: Rethinking the “problem of the second generation” in light of immigrant autobiographies*. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie, 42(3), 325343. 10.1111/j.1755-618X.2005.tb00843.x
  38. Kleykamp, M., Montgomery, S., Pang, A., & Schrader, K. (2021). Military identity and planning for the transition out of the military. Military Psychology, 33(6), 372391. 10.1080/08995605.2021.1962176
  39. LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L. K., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 395412. 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.395
  40. Liles, L. A. (2018). Military identity, psychological flexibility, and reintegration experiences of post 9/11 service members and veterans [Doctoral dissertation, University of California Santa Barbara]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/41s821w6
  41. Markowitz, F. E., Kintzle, S., & Castro, C. A. (2022). Military-to-civilian transition strains and risky behavior among post-9/11 veterans. Military Psychology, 35(1), 3849. 10.1080/08995605.2022.2065177
  42. McCaslin, S. E., Becket-Davenport, C., Dinh, J. V., Lasher, B., Kim, M., Choucroun, G., & Herbst, E. (2021). Military acculturation and readjustment to the civilian context. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(6), 611620. 10.1037/tra0000999
  43. McCormack, L., & Ell, L. (2017). Complex psychosocial distress postdeployment in veterans: Reintegration identity disruption and challenged moral integrity. Traumatology, 23(3), 240249. 10.1037/trm0000107
  44. McIntosh, M. F., Sayala, S., & Gregory, D. (2011). Non-citizens in the enlisted US military (CRM D0025768.A2/Final). Center for Naval Analysis. https://www.cna.org/archive/CNA_Files/pdf/d0025768.a2.pdf
  45. McNally, J. A. (2020). A bicultural service member/civilian identity and motivations-based assessment of moral injury in US military and veteran populations from America’s longest wars. Liberty University. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/2754/
  46. Meca, A., Allison, K. K., Ayers, K. L., Carr, K., Cox, S., Bravo, A. J., Davies, R., & Kelley, M. L. (2021). Understanding the unique effects of identity in adjustment among veterans. Military Behavioral Health, 9(4), 416424. 10.1080/21635781.2021.1927918
  47. Miller, M. J., Kim, J., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2011). Validating the Riverside Acculturation Stress Inventory with Asian Americans. Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 300310. 10.1037/a0021589
  48. Moon, Z. (2019). Warriors between worlds: Moral injury and identities in crisis. Rowman & Littlefield. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-14404-000
  49. Moore, B. A., Collette, T. L., & Judkins, J. L. (2022). Identity dissonance in recently separated military veterans. In R. Gurung (Ed.), The Routledge research encyclopedia of psychology applied to everyday life. Routledge. 10.4324/9780367198459-REPRW124-1
  50. Nguyen, A. M. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2013). Biculturalism and adjustment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(1), 122159. 10.1177/0022022111435097
  51. Orazem, R. J., Frazier, P. A., Schnurr, P. P., Oleson, H. E., Carlson, K. F., Litz, B. T., & Sayer, N. A. (2017). Identity adjustment among Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans with reintegration difficulty. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(Suppl 1), 411. 10.1037/tra0000225
  52. Parks, R., Walker, E., & Smith, C. (2015). Exploring the challenges of academic advising for student veterans. College & University, 90(4), 3752. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1083680
  53. Passel, J. S., & Cohn, D. (2008, February 11). US population projections: 2005–2050. Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trends Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005-2050/
  54. Pedlar, D., Thompson, J. M., & Castro, C. A. (2019). Miliary-to-civilian transition theories and frameworks. In C. A. Castro & S. Dursun (Eds.), Military veteran reintegration: Approach, management, and assessment of military veterans transitioning to civilian life (pp. 2150). Academic Press. https://www.perlego.com/book/1828398/military-veteran-reintegration-approach-management-and-assessment-of-military-veterans-transitioning-to-civilian-life-pdf
  55. Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499514. 10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
  56. Phinney, J. S., & Devich-Navarro, M. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence (Lawrence Erlbaum), 7(1), 332. 10.1207/s15327795jra0701_2
  57. Resteigne, D. (2022). Fighting for your host country: Non-citizen soldiers in Belgium. In G. Scoppio & S. Greco (Eds.), The power of diversity in the armed forces: International perspectives on immigrant participation in the military, 19, 1733. McGill-Queen’s University Press. 10.1515/9780228013440
  58. Rodriguez, D. X., & Manley, E. (2020). How we fail US foreign-born veterans: A scoping study of the literature. Journal of Veterans Studies, 6(3), 19. 10.21061/jvs.v6i3.186
  59. Romaniuk, M., Fisher, G., Kidd, C., & Batterham, P. J. (2020). Assessing psychological adjustment and cultural reintegration after military service: Development and psychometric evaluation of the post-separation Military-Civilian Adjustment and Reintegration Measure (M-CARM). BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 531. 10.1186/s12888-020-02936-y
  60. Romaniuk, M., & Kidd, C. (2018). The psychological adjustment experience of reintegration following discharge from military service: A systematic review. Journal of Military and Veterans’ Health, 26(2), 6073. https://doi-ds.org/doilink/05.2021-33613133/JMVH
  61. Rudmin, F. W. (2003). Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Review of General Psychology, 7(1), 337. 10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.3
  62. Schafer, A. (2017). Generation of war: The rise of the warrior caste & the all-volunteer force. Center for a New American Security. https://www.cnas.org/press/press-release/cnas-releases-new-report-generations-of-war-the-rise-of-the-warrior-caste-and-the-all-volunteer-force
  63. Schwartz, S. J., Montgomery, M. J., & Briones, E. (2006). The role of identity in acculturation among immigrant people: Theoretical propositions, empirical questions, and applied recommendations. Human Development, 49(1), 130. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26763865
  64. Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation. The American Psychologist, 65(4), 237251. 10.1037/a0019330
  65. Schwartz, S. J., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2008). Testing Berry’s model of acculturation: A confirmatory latent class approach. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 275285. 10.1037/a0012818
  66. Searle, W., & Ward, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14(4), 449464. 10.1016/0147-1767(90)90030-Z
  67. Smith, M. J. (2023). Can veterans experience acculturative stress? Journal of Veterans Studies, 9(1), 103114. 10.21061/jvs.v9i1.371
  68. Smith-MacDonald, L., Raffin-Bouchal, S., Reay, G., Ewashen, C., Konnert, C., & Sinclair, S. (2020). Transitioning fractured identities: A grounded theory of veterans’ experiences of operational stress injuries. Traumatology, 26(2), 235245. 10.1037/trm0000232
  69. Smith, R. T., & True, G. (2014). Warring identities: Identity conflict and the mental distress of american veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Society and Mental Health, 4(2), 147161. 10.1177/2156869313512212
  70. Stock, M. D. (2013). Military immigration issues. GPSolo, 30(5), 3841. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23630734
  71. Sutton, P. D., & Hamilton, B. E. (2011). Recent trends in births and fertility rates through 2010. CDC National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/births_fertility_2010/births_fertility_2010.htm
  72. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worschel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 724). Nelson-Hall. 10.4324/9780203505984-16
  73. Tkachuck, M. A., Pavlacic, J. M., Raley, M. J., McCaslin, S. E., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2022). Validating military culture: The factor analysis of a military-related adaptation of acculturation in veterans. Psychological Services, 19(3), 585596. 10.1037/ser0000558
  74. Truusa, T. T., & Castro, C. A. (2019). Definition of a veteran: The military viewed as culture. In C. A. Castro & S. Dursun (Eds.), Military veteran reintegration: Approach, management, and assessment of military veterans transitioning to civilian life (pp. 618). Academic Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335509117_Definition_of_a_veteran_the_military_viewed_as_a_culture
  75. UCLA/VA VFWC. (2021, April 2). Moral injury as an identity wound with Dr. Bill Nash. YouTube. https://youtu.be/_U8YFOg0CLY
  76. US Department of Labor. (n.d.). Transition Assistance Program. US Department of Labor. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/vets/programs/tap
  77. Vest, B. M. (2013). Citizen, soldier, or citizen-soldier? Negotiating identity in the US National Guard. Armed Forces & Society, 39(4), 602627. 10.1177/0095327X12457725
  78. Wong, C. (2007). WHO FIGHTS: Substitution, commutation, and “Green Card troops.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 4(1), 167188. 10.1017/S1742058X07070099
  79. Young, S., Ondek, G., & Phillips, G. A. (2022). Stranger in a strange land: A qualitative exploration of veteranness. Journal of Veterans Studies, 8(1), 175185. 10.21061/jvs.v8i1.308
  80. Zinger, L., & Cohen, A. (2010). Veterans returning from war into the classroom: How can colleges be better prepared to meet their needs. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 3(1), 3952. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1072581.pdf
Language: English
Page range: 161 - 171
Submitted on: Jan 15, 2025
Accepted on: Feb 19, 2025
Published on: Apr 17, 2025
Published by: Virginia Tech Publishing
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2025 Thomas J. Hodges, Nilofer K. Bharwani, Eric Manley, Darlene Xiomara Rodriguez, published by Virginia Tech Publishing
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.