Figure 1
Location of Akdeniz Protected Area.
Figure 2
Examples of the olive groves in Akdeniz Protected Area.
Table 1
The main cultural groups living in Akdeniz Protected Area.
| NAME OF VILLAGE | CULTURAL GROUP | CHARACTERISTICS |
|---|---|---|
| Akdeniz | The permanent Turkish Cypriots mixed with the Turkish immigrants. | The Turkish Cypriots have always lived in these villages. However, they mixed with the Turkish immigrants, who moved to the villages in 1975. |
| Tepebaşı | ||
| Koruçam | The Maronite Cypriots | The Maronite Cypriots have lived in the region for hundreds of years. |
| Karpaşa | ||
| Çamlıbel | The Turkish Cypriots migrated from South Cyprus | The Turkish Cypriots of this village migrated from South Cyprus to Çamlıbel village in 1974. |
| Kayalar | The Turkish immigrants | The local people of this village migrated from Turkey to the region in 1975. |
Table 2
The typology of the socio-ecological landscape values associated with the olive groves in Akdeniz Protected Area.
| VALUE DOMAIN | TYPE OF VALUE | DESCRIPTION | REFERENCE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ecological-economic domain | Life-sustaining value | Olive groves provide vital goods and services (e.g., food and olive oil) for local communities. | Bieling et al. (2020), Brown (2004), Eser et al. (2014), Mathevet et al. (2018), Seymour et al. (2008), Tarrant and Cordell (2002). |
| Socio-cultural domain | Aesthetic value | Olive groves are valuable because of their scenic beauty. | Rolston (1994), Satterfield (2001), Seymour et al. (2008), Tarrant and Cordell (2002). |
| Recreational value | Olive groves provide opportunities for recreational activities. | Rolston (1994), Satterfield (2001), Seymour et al. (2008). | |
| Learning value | Olive groves provide opportunities for learning about the environment and its components and accumulating relevant traditional knowledge. | Brown (2004), Seymour et al. (2008). | |
| Future generations value | The rights of future generations are recognised for a healthy and productive environment. | Rolston (1994), Satterfield (2001), Seymour et al. (2008). | |
| Therapeutic value | Olive groves contribute to people feeling better physically and spiritually. | Brown (2004), Seymour et al. (2008). | |
| Historical value | Olive groves provide the opportunity to connect us to our human history. | Rolston (1994), Satterfield (2001), Seymour et al. (2008). | |
| Symbolic value | The olive tree represents the island of Cyprus and peace. | Ciftcioglu (2021). | |
| Spiritual value | The olive tree is spiritually valuable. | Ciftcioglu (2021), Tarrant and Cordell (2002). | |
| Cultural heritage value | Traditional olive groves are our cultural heritage. | Ciftcioglu (2021). |
Table 3
Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants (n: 60).
| CATEGORY OF PARTICIPANTS’ CHARACTERISTICS | SAMPLE SIZE | PERCENTAGE |
|---|---|---|
| Age groups | ||
| Younger (15–34) | 7 | 11.6 |
| Middle-aged (35–54) | 21 | 35.0 |
| Older (55 and above) | 32 | 53.3 |
| Gender | ||
| Male | 39 | 65.0 |
| Female | 21 | 35.0 |
| Education | ||
| Illiterate | 11 | 18.3 |
| Elementary school | 20 | 33.3 |
| High school | 19 | 31.7 |
| University or college | 10 | 16.7 |
| Occupation | ||
| Housewife | 16 | 26.7 |
| Farmer | 13 | 21.7 |
| Retired | 11 | 18.3 |
| Student | 4 | 6.7 |
| Landowner | 1 | 1.7 |
| Self-employed (e.g., shop- keepers) | 9 | 15.0 |
| Office clerk | 4 | 6.7 |
| Private sector (e.g., tourism) | 2 | 3.3 |
Table 4
The socio-ecological landscape values of olive groves in Akdeniz Protected Area (n: 60).
| VALUE DOMAIN | TYPE OF VALUE | GENDER | MEAN VALUE (1–5 SCALE) | STD. DEVIATION | DEGREE OF VALUE | RANK | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MALE (n: 39) | FEMALE (n: 21) | ||||||
| Ecological-economic | Life-sustaining value | 4.79 | 4.85 | 4.81 | 0.536 | High | 1 |
| Biological diversity | 2.76 | 3.23 | 2.93 | 1.02 | Low | 10 | |
| The average mean value | 3.77 | 4.04 | 3.87 | Medium | |||
| Socio-cultural | Aesthetic value | 4.71 | 4.61 | 4.68 | 0.791 | High | 3 |
| Recreational value | 1.76 | 3.38 | 2.33 | 1.643 | Low | 11 | |
| Learning value | 3.02 | 3.28 | 3.11 | 1.785 | Medium | 8 | |
| Future generations value | 3.20 | 4.28 | 3.58 | 1.543 | Medium | 6 | |
| Therapeutic value | 4.71 | 4.76 | 4.73 | 0.445 | High | 2 | |
| Historical value | 4.23 | 4.52 | 4.33 | 1.002 | High | 4 | |
| Symbolic value | 2.89 | 4.09 | 3.31 | 1.741 | Medium | 7 | |
| Spiritual value | 3.94 | 3.61 | 3.83 | 1.277 | Medium | 5 | |
| Cultural heritage | 2.66 | 3.76 | 3.05 | 1.731 | Medium | 9 | |
| The average mean value | 3.45 | 4.03 | 3.66 | Medium | |||
| The total average mean value | 3.51 | 4.02 | 3.69 | Medium | |||
Table 5
The result of the one-way ANOVA Test.
| GROUP OF VILLAGES | CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUPS | N | MEAN | RANK | P | SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group 1 (Akdeniz & Tepebaşı villages) | The permanent Turkish Cypriots mixed with Turkish immigrants. | 18 | 3.10 | 4 | 0.000 | 1–2, 1–3, 1–4 |
| Group 2 (Koruçam & Karpaşa villages) | The Maronite Cypriots | 15 | 4.09 | 1 | ||
| Group 3 (Kayalar village) | The Turkish immigrants | 16 | 3.93 | 2 | ||
| Group 4 (Çamlıbel village | The Turkish Cypriots migrated from South Cyprus | 11 | 3.80 | 3 | ||
| Total | 60 | 3.70 | ||||
[i] The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Table 6
Traditional knowledge of olive groves and associated natural resources in Akdeniz Protected Area (n: 60).
| PART OF THE OLIVE TREE USED | PURPOSE OF USAGE | TYPE OF PROCESSING | NAME OF VILLAGE | PERCENTAGE OF PARTICIPANTS |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fruit | Olive oil | The collected olive fruits are processed in the olive oil factories (Kalkanlı and Karşıyaka), and then olive oil is produced. | All villages | 100 |
| The traditional olive food ‘Çakistes’ (a kind of pickled green olive). | The collected green olive fruits are previously crushed with a stone. To eliminate their bitterness, the olive fruits are kept in fresh water for three days. Freshwater is changed every morning and evening during this process. Finally, the olive fruits are filtered and filled in a jar, and a little coarse salt, thyme, lemon, and olive oil are added. | Çamlıbel, Kayalar, Akdeniz, Koruçam | 81.7 | |
| Black olives | When olive fruits are ripe, they are harvested, washed, salted, and then filled in a jar to be consumed during the year. | Akdeniz, Tepebaşı, Koruçam | 50 | |
| Bread | Black olives are used in traditional bread. | All villages | 100 | |
| Appetizer | Black olives are barbecued and then eaten as an appetizer. | Tepebaşı | 13.3 | |
| Leaf | Incense | Olive leaves are burned to be used as incense. | Çamlıbel, Akdeniz | 35 |
| Medicine | The raw olive leaves are chewed to heal mouth wounds. | Çamlıbel | 18.3 | |
| Herbal tea | The olive leaves are boiled in water and consumed as herbal tea. One of the benefits of this tea is to lower blood sugar. | Çamlıbel, Tepebaşı, Karpaşa | 36.6 | |
| Olive branches | Belief | The olive branches are burned against the evil eye. | Kayalar, Karpaşa, Koruçam | 51.7 |
| Timber | Furniture | The timber obtained from the olive tree was used to make tables in the past. | Çamlıbel | 18.3 |
| Dried olive branches | Fuelwood | Dried olive branches are used as fuelwood. | Kayalar | 26.7 |
Table 7
The wild plants and mushroom species collected from the surrounding natural areas of olive groves in Akdeniz Protected Area.
| NO. | FAMILY NAME | SCIENTIFIC NAME | LOCAL NAME | ENGLISH NAME | PURPOSE OF COLLECTION | LOCATION OF COLLECTION | PERCENTAGE OF PARTICIPANTS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The wild plant species collected | |||||||
| 1 | Anacardiaceae | Pistacia lentiscus L. | Şinya | Mastic tree | Food | Çamlıbel | 1.3 |
| 2 | Apiaceae | Eryngium creticum L. | Gazayağı | Eryngo, sea holly | All villages | 100 | |
| 3 | Asteraceae/Compositae | Cynara cornigera Lindley. | Hostes | Artichokes | Kayalar, Akdeniz | 43.4 | |
| 4 | Cynara cardunculus L. | Yabani enginar | Wild artichoke | Karpaşa, Koruçam | 25 | ||
| 5 | Scolymus hispanicus L. | Gara diken | Spanish oyster-plant | Tepebaşı | 13.3 | ||
| 6 | Centaurea hyalolepis Boiss. | Kadın kasığı | Centaury | Akdeniz | 16.7 | ||
| 7 | Brassicaceae | Sinapis alba L. | Lapsana | Mustard | All villages | 100 | |
| 8 | Capparaceae | Capparis spinosa L. | Gabbar | Caper bush | Pickle and appetizer | Çamlıbel, Kayalar, Koruçam | 65 |
| 9 | Caryophyllaceae | Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke | Yumurta otu | Bladder campion, maidenstears | Food | Kayalar, Akdeniz, Tepebaşı, Karpaşa, Koruçam | 81.7 |
| 10 | Leguminosae/Fabaceae | Ceratonia siliqua L. | Harnup | Carob | Fruit and carob syrup | Çamlıbel | 18.3 |
| 11 | Lamiaceae/Labiatae | Saliva fruticosa Miller | Adaçayı | Sage | Herbal tea | Çamlıbel | 18.3 |
| 12 | Liliaceae | Asparagus stipularis Forrsk. | Ayrelli | Wild asparagus | Food | All villages | 100 |
| 13 | Asparagus officinalis | Asparagus | |||||
| 14 | Allium ampeloprasum var. PORRUM (L.) Gay | Yabani pırasa, dağ pırasası | Wild leek | Food | Çamlıbel, Kayalar, Tepebaşı | 58.3 | |
| 15 | Allium neapolitanum | Yabani sarmısak | Wild garlic | Spice | Çamlıbel | 18.3 | |
| 16 | Malvaceae | Malva sylvestris L. | Gömeç | Mallow | Food | Kayalar, Akdeniz | 43.4 |
| 17 | Polygonaceae | Rumex conglomeratus Murray. | Yabani ıspanak | Clustered dock | Food | Çamlıbel | 18.3 |
| 18 | Rosaceae | Crataegus azarolus L. | Alıç | Azarole | Fruit | Kayalar, Çamlıbel | 45 |
| The mushroom species collected | |||||||
| 1 | Pleurotaceae | Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae | Gavcar mantarı | King trumpet mushroom | Food | Kayalar, Çamlıbel, Tepebaşı, Karpaşa, Koruçam | 83.3 |
| 2 | Russulaceae | Lactarius deliciosus | Kırmızı mantar | Saffron milkcap mushroom | Kayalar | 26.7 | |
| 3 | Russulaceae | Russula delica | Beyaz mantar, vuni | Milk-white brittlegill | Akdeniz, Koruçam | 36.7 | |
Figure 3
The dimensions of landscape stewardship and relevant drivers in the context of Akdeniz Protected Area. (Developed from U.S. National Park Services, 2021; Brown and Mitchell, 2000; Chan et al., 2016; Conrad, 2017; Raymond et al., 2016; Brown and Raymond, 2007; Eser et al., 2014).
Table 8
The role of socio-ecological values in landscape stewardship.
| VALUE DOMAIN | TYPE OF VALUE | VALUE OF NATURE | STEWARDSHIP PRINCIPLE | EXAMPLES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ecological-economic domain | Life-sustaining value | Instrumental | Prudence | Collection of olive fruits, production of olive oil, and income generation. |
| Ecological biodiversity | Prudence, ecological solidarity | Collection of wild plants and mushrooms. | ||
| Socio-cultural domain | Aesthetic value | Eudemonic/Relational values’ | Good life | Sights, sounds, smells, etc. |
| Recreational value | Hiking, site-seeing, etc. | |||
| Learning value | Awareness | Education activities. | ||
| Future generations value | Justice | Conservation of olive groves. | ||
| Therapeutic value | Good life | Walking in the olive groves. | ||
| Historical value | The local people have developed emotional bonds with their ancestors through the olive tree and olive groves. | |||
| Symbolic value | The olive tree represents the island of Cyprus and peace; therefore, it is valued. | |||
| Spiritual value | The olive leaf is used against the evil eye. | |||
| Cultural heritage | The local communities recognise the cultural heritage value of olive groves. |
Figure 4
The process of the socio-ecological landscape values for olive groves in landscape stewardship in Akdeniz Protected Area.