Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy: A Focus on Advances in Diagnosis and Management
By: Colin T. Stomberski and Monica M. Colvin
References
- Khush KK, Cherikh WS, Chambers DC, et al. The International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Thirty-sixth adult heart transplantation report - 2019; focus theme: Donor and recipient size match. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2019 Oct;38(10):1056-66. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2019.08.004
- Pober JS, Chih S, Kobashigawa J, Madsen JC, Tellides G. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: current review and future research directions. Cardiovasc Res. 2021 Nov 22;117(13):2624-38. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvab259
- Chang A, Martin KA, Colvin M, Bellumkonda L. Role of ascorbic acid in cardiac allograft vasculopathy. lin Transplant. 2023 Dec;37(12):
e15153 . doi: 10.1111/ctr.15153 - Day JD, Rayburn BK, Gaudin PB, et al. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: the central pathogenetic role of ischemia-induced endothelial cell injury. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1995 Nov-Dec;14(6 Pt 2):S142-9. PMID: 8719476
- Valantine H, Rickenbacker P, Kemna M, et al. Metabolic abnormalities characteristic of dysmetabolic syndrome predict the development of transplant coronary artery disease: a prospective study. Circulation. 2001 May 1;103(17):2144-52. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.103.17.2144
- Lu WH, Palatnik K, Fishbein GA, et al. Diverse morphologic manifestations of cardiac allograft vasculopathy: a pathologic study of 64 allograft hearts. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2011 Sep;30(9):1044-50. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2011.04.008
- Huibers MM, Vink A, Kaldeway J, et al. Distinct phenotypes of cardiac allograft vasculopathy after heart transplantation: a histopathological study. Atherosclerosis. 2014 Oct;236(2):353-9. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.016
- van Loosdregt J, van Oosterhout MF, Bruggink AH, et al. The chemokine and chemokine receptor profile of infiltrating cells in the wall of arteries with cardiac allograft vasculopathy is indicative of a memory T-helper 1 response. Circulation. 2006 Oct;114(15):1599-607. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.597526
- Nagano H, Mitchell RN, Taylor MK, Hasegawa S, Tilney NL, Libby P. Interferon15 gamma deficiency prevents coronary arteriosclerosis but not myocardial rejection in transplanted mouse hearts. J Clin Invest. 1997 Aug 1;100(3):550-7. doi: 10.1172/JCI119564
- Tellides G, Tereb DA, Kirkiles-Smith NC, et al. Interferon-gamma elicits arteriosclerosis in the absence of leukocytes. Nature. 2000 Jan 13;403(6766):207-11. doi: 10.1038/35003221
- Wang Y, Bai Y, Qin L, et al. Interferon-gamma induces human vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and intimal expansion by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase dependent mammalian target of rapamycin raptor complex activation. Circ Res. 2007 Sep 14;101(6):560-9. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.151068
- Tellides G, Pober JS. Interferon-gamma axis in graft arteriosclerosis. Circ Res. 2007 Mar 16;100(5):622-32. doi: 10.1161/01.RES.0000258861.72279.29
- Zhang Q, Cecka JM, Gjertson DW, et al. HLA and MICA: targets of antibody-mediated rejection in heart transplantation. Transplantation. 2011 May 27;91(10):1153-8. doi: 10.1097/TP.0b013e3182157d60
- Galvani S, Auge N, Calise D, et al. HLA class I antibodies provoke graft arteriosclerosis in human arteries transplanted into SCID/beige 12 mice. Am J Transplant. 2009 Nov;9(11):2607-14. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02804.x
- Hirohashi T, Chase CM, Della Pelle P, et al. A novel pathway of chronic allograft rejection mediated by NK cells and 16 alloantibody. Am J Transplant. 2012 Feb;12(2):313-21. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03836.x
- Hiemann NE, Meyer R, Wellnhofer E, et al. Non-HLA antibodies targeting vascular receptors enhance alloimmune response and microvasculopathy after heart transplantation. Transplantation. 2012 Nov 15;94(9):919-24. doi: 10.1097/TP.0b013e3182692ad2
- Shaw SM, Williams SG. Is brain natriuretic peptide clinically 1 useful after cardiac transplantation? J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006 Dec;25(12):1396-401. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2006.10.001
- Labarrere CA, Lee JB, Nelson DR, Al-Hassani M, Miller SJ, Pitts DE. C-reactive protein, arterial endothelial activation, and development of transplant coronary artery disease: a prospective study. Lancet. 2002 Nov 9;360(9344):1462-7. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11473-5.
- Singh N, Heggermont W, Fieuws S, Vanhaecke J, Van Cleemput J, De Geest B. Endothelium-enriched microRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers for cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2015 Nov;34(11):1376-84. Epub 20150617. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2015.06.008
- Neumann A, Napp LC, Kleeberger JA, et al. MicroRNA 628-5p as a Novel Biomarker for Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. Transplantation. 2017 Jan;101(1):e26-e33. doi: 10.1097/TP.0000000000001477
- Przybylek B, Boethig D, Neumann A, et al. Novel Cytokine Score and Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2019 Apr 1;123(7):1114-9. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.12.034
- Almufleh A, Zhang L, Mielniczuk LM, et al. Biomarker discovery in cardiac allograft vasculopathy using targeted aptamer proteomics. Clin Transplant. 2020 Jan;34(1):
e13765 . doi: 10.1111/ctr.13765 - Kennel PJ, Saha A, Maldonado DA, et al. Serum exosomal protein profiling for the non-invasive detection of cardiac allograft rejection. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2018 Mar;37(3):409-17. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2017.07.012
- Costanzo MR, Dipchand A, Starling R, et al. The International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation Guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010 Aug;29(8):914-56. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2010.05.034
- Prada-Delgado O, Estevez-Loureiro R, Paniagua-Martin MJ, Lopez-Sainz A, Crespo-Leiro MG. Prevalence and prognostic value of cardiac allograft vasculopathy 1 year after heart transplantation according to the ISHLT recommended nomenclature. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2012 Mar;31(3):332-3. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2011.12.006
- Costanzo MR, Naftel DC, Pritzker MR, et al. Heart transplant coronary artery disease detected by coronary angiography: a multiinstitutional study of preoperative donor and recipient risk factors. Cardiac Transplant Research Database. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1998 Aug;17(8):744-53. PMID: 9730422
- Tuzcu EM, Hobbs RE, Rincon G, et al. Occult and frequent transmission of atherosclerotic coronary disease with cardiac transplantation. Insights from intravascular ultrasound. Circulation. 1995 Mar 15;91(6):1706-13. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.91.6.1706
- Shahandeh N, Kashiyama K, Honda Y, et al. Invasive Coronary Imaging Assessment for Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy: State-of-the-Art Review. J Soc Cardiovasc Angiogr Interv. 2022 May 13;1(4):100344. doi: 10.1016/j.jscai.2022.100344
- St Goar FG, Pinto FJ, Alderman EL, et al. Intracoronary ultrasound in cardiac transplant recipients. In vivo evidence of “angiographically silent” intimal thickening. Circulation. 1992 Mar;85(3):979-87. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.85.3.979
- Mehra MR, Ventura HO, Stapleton DD, Smart FW, Collins TC, Ramee SR. Presence of severe intimal thickening by intravascular ultrasonography predicts cardiac events in cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1995;14(4):632-9. PMID: 7578168
- Rickenbacher PR, Pinto FJ, Lewis NP, et al. Prognostic importance of intimal thickness as measured by intracoronary ultrasound after cardiac transplantation. Circulation. 1995 Dec 15;92(12):3445-52. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.92.12.3445
- Kobashigawa JA, Tobis JM, Starling RC, et al. Multicenter intravascular ultrasound validation study among heart transplant recipients: outcomes after five years. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 May 3;45(9):1532-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.02.035
- Tuzcu EM, Kapadia SR, Sachar R, et al. Intravascular ultrasound evidence of angiographically silent progression in coronary atherosclerosis predicts long-term morbidity and mortality after cardiac 1 transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 May 3;45(9):1538-42. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2004.12.076
- Hou J, Lv H, Jia H, et al. OCT assessment of allograft vasculopathy in heart transplant recipients. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012 Jun;5(6):662-3. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2012.01.018
- Khandhar SJ, Yamamoto H, Teuteberg JJ, et al. Optical coherence tomography for characterization of cardiac allograft vasculopathy after heart transplantation (OCTCAV study). J Heart Lung Transplant. 2013 Jun;32(6):596- 602. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2013.02.005
- Chih S, Chong AY, Dzavik V, et al. Fibrotic Plaque and Microvascular Dysfunction Predict Early Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy Progression After Heart Transplantation: The Early Post Transplant Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy Study. Circ Heart Fail. 2023 Jun;16(6):
e010173 . doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.122.010173 - Ahn JM, Zimmermann FM, Arora S, et al. Prognostic value of comprehensive intracoronary physiology assessment early after heart transplantation. Eur Heart J. 2021 Dec 21;42(48):4918-29. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab568
- Lee JH, Okada K, Khush K, et al. Coronary Endothelial Dysfunction and the Index of Microcirculatory Resistance as a Marker of Subsequent Development of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. Circulation. 2017 Mar 14;135(11):1093-5. doi: 10.1161/Circulationaha.116.025268
- Yang HM, Khush K, Luikart H, et al. Invasive Assessment of Coronary Physiology Predicts Late Mortality After Heart Transplantation. Circulation. 2016 May 17;133(20):1945-50. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018741
- Feher A, Miller EJ. PET Myocardial Blood Flow for Post-transplant Surveillance and Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy in Heart Transplant Recipients. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2022 Oct 24;24(12):1865-71. doi: 10.1007/s11886-022-01804-3
- Ajluni SC
Jr. , Mously H, Chami T, et al. Non-invasive Imaging in the Evaluation of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy in Heart Transplantation: A Systematic Review. Curr Probl Cardiol. 2022 Aug;47(8):101103. doi: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2022.101103 - Chih S, Chong AY, Erthal F, et al. PET Assessment of Epicardial Intimal Disease and Microvascular Dysfunction in Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Apr 3;71(13):1444-56. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.01.062
- Bravo PE, Bergmark BA, Vita T, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic value of myocardial blood flow quantification as non-invasive indicator of cardiac allograft vasculopathy. Eur Heart J. 2018;39(4):316-23. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx683
- Konerman MC, Lazarus JJ, Weinberg RL, Shah RV, Ghannam M, Hummel SL, et al. Reduced Myocardial Flow Reserve by Positron Emission Tomography Predicts Cardiovascular Events After Cardiac Transplantation. Circ Heart Fail. 2018 Jan 21;11(6):
e004473 . doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.117.004473 - Prasad N, Harris E, Yuzefpolskaya M, et al. Can the grading of mild cardiac allograft vasculopathy be further refined? An angiographic and physiologic assessment of heart transplant recipients with ISHLT CAV 1. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2024 Dec 30:S1053-2498(24)02028-X. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2024.12.013
- Gondi KT, Hammer Y, Yosef M, et al. Longitudinal Change and Predictors of Myocardial Flow Reserve by Positron Emission Tomography for the Evaluation of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy Following Heart Transplantation. J Card Fail. 2024 Jul;30(7):915-25. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2023.09.013
- Gondi KT, Kaul DR, Gregg KS, et al. Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with impaired myocardial flow reserve after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2024 Mar;43(3):432-41. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2023.10.005
- Madamanchi C, Konerman MC, Murthy VL. Imaging Coronary Allograft Vasculopathy with Cardiac PET and Cardiac MRI. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2021 Oct 16;23(12):175. doi: 10.1007/s11886-021-01606-z
- Muehling OM, Wilke NM, Panse P, et al. Reduced myocardial perfusion reserve and transmural perfusion gradient in heart transplant arteriopathy assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003 Sep 17;42(6):1054-60. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(03)00924-0
- Miller CA, Sarma J, Naish JH, et al. Multiparametric cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Mar 4;63(8):799-808. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.07.119
- Hughes A, Okasha O, Farzaneh-Far A, et al. Myocardial Fibrosis and Prognosis in Heart Transplant Recipients. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2019;12(10):
e009060 . doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.119.009060 - Kazmirczak F, Nijjar PS, Zhang L, Hughes A, Chen KA, Okasha O, et al. Safety and prognostic value of regadenoson stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in heart transplant recipients. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2019 Oct;21(1):9. doi: 10.1186/s12968-018-0515-2
- Erbel C, Mukhammadaminova N, Gleissner CA, et al. Myocardial Perfusion Reserve and Strain-Encoded CMR for Evaluation of Cardiac Allograft Microvasculopathy. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016 Mar;9(3):255-66. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2015.10.012
- Velleca A, Shullo MA, Dhital K, et al. The International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2023 May;42(5):e1-e141. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2022.10.015
- Chirakarnjanakorn S, Starling RC, Popovic ZB, Griffin BP, Desai MY. Dobutamine stress echocardiography during follow-up surveillance in heart transplant patients: Diagnostic accuracy and predictors of outcomes. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2015 May;34(5):710-7. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2014.11.019
- Clerkin KJ, Farr MA, Restaino SW, Ali ZA, Mancini DM. Dobutamine stress echocardiography is inadequate to detect early cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2016 Aug;35(8):1040-1. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2016.05.012
- Wever-Pinzon O, Romero J, Kelesidis I, et al. Coronary computed tomography angiography for the detection of cardiac allograft vasculopathy: a meta-analysis of prospective trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 May 20;63(19):1992-2004. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.01.071
- Asleh R, Briasoulis A, Smith B, et al. Association of Aspirin Treatment With Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy Progression and Adverse Outcomes After Heart Transplantation. J Card Fail. 2021 May;27(5):542-51. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2021.01.019
- Kim M, Bergmark BA, Zelniker TA, et al. Early aspirin use and the development of cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2017 Dec;36(12):1344-9. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2017.06.015
- Peled Y, Lavee J, Raichlin E, et al. Early aspirin initiation following heart transplantation is associated with reduced risk of allograft vasculopathy during long-term follow-up. Clin Transplant. 2017 Dec;31(12). doi: 10.1111/ctr.13133
- Fang JC, Kinlay S, Beltrame J, et al. Effect of vitamins C and E on progression of transplant-associated arteriosclerosis: a randomized trial. Lancet. 2002 Mar 30;359(9312):1108-13. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08154-0
- Kobashigawa JA, Katznelson S, Laks H, et al. Effect of pravastatin on outcomes after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med. 1995 Sep 7;333(10):621-7. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199509073331003
- Kobashigawa JA, Moriguchi JD, Laks H, et al. Ten-year follow-up of a randomized trial of pravastatin in heart transplant patients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005 Nov;24(11):1736-40. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2005.02.009
- Wenke K, Meiser B, Thiery J, et al. Simvastatin reduces graft vessel disease and mortality after heart transplantation: a four-year randomized trial. Circulation. 1997 Sep 2;96(5):1398-402. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.96.5.1398
- Wenke K, Meiser B, Thiery J, et al. Simvastatin initiated early after heart transplantation: 8-year prospective experience. Circulation. 2003 Jan 7;107(1):93-7. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.0000043241.32523.ee
- Golbus JR, Adie S, Yosef M, Murthy VL, Aaronson KD, Konerman MC. Statin 6 intensity and risk for cardiovascular events after heart transplantation. ESC Heart Fail. 2020 Oct;7(5):2074-81. doi: 10.1002/ehf2.12784
- Ellimuttil TM, Harrison K, Rollins AT, et al. Effect of Statin Intensity on the Progression of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. Card Fail Rev. 2021 Nov 12;7:
e15 . doi: 10.15420/cfr.2021.07 - Harris J, Teuteberg J, Shullo M. Optimal low-density lipoprotein concentration for cardiac allograft vasculopathy prevention. Clin Transplant. 2018 May;32(5):
e13248 . doi: 10.1111/ctr.13248 - Broch K, Lemstrom KB, Gustafsson F, et al. Randomized Trial of Cholesterol Lowering With Evolocumab for Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy in Heart Transplant Recipients. JACC Heart Fail. 2024 Oct;12(10):1677-88. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2024.04.026
- Eisen HJ, Tuzcu EM, Dorent R, et al. Everolimus for the prevention of allograft rejection and vasculopathy in cardiac-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med. 2003 Aug 28;349(9):847-58. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa022171
- Eisen HJ, Kobashigawa J, Starling RC, et al. Everolimus versus mycophenolate mofetil in heart transplantation: a randomized, multicenter trial. Am J Transplant. 2013 May;13(5):1203-16. doi: 10.1111/ajt.12181
- Keogh A, Richardson M, Ruygrok P, et al. Sirolimus in de novo heart transplant recipients reduces acute rejection and prevents coronary artery disease at 2 years: a randomized clinical trial. Circulation. 2004 Oct 26;110(17):2694-700. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000136812.90177.94
- Mancini D, Pinney S, Burkhoff D, et al. Use of rapamycin slows progression of cardiac transplantation vasculopathy. Circulation. 2003 Jul 8;108(1):48-53. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000070421.38604.2B
- Raichlin E, Bae JH, Khalpey Z, et al. Conversion to sirolimus as primary immunosuppression attenuates the progression of allograft vasculopathy after cardiac transplantation. Circulation. 2007 Dec 4;116(23):2726-33. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.692996
- Asleh R, Briasoulis A, Kremers WK, et al. Long-Term Sirolimus for Primary Immunosuppression in Heart Transplant Recipients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Feb 13;71(6):636-50. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.005
- Halle AA
3rd , DiSciascio G, Massin EK, et al. Coronary angioplasty, atherectomy and bypass surgery in cardiac transplant recipients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995 Jul;26(1):120-8. doi: 10.1016/0735-1097(95)00124-i - Heublein B, Pethig K, Maass C, Wahlers T, Haverich A. Coronary artery stenting in cardiac allograft vascular disease. Am Heart J. 1997 Nov;134(5 Pt 1):930-8. doi: 10.1016/s0002-8703(97)80017-8
- Wong PM, Piamsomboon C, Mathur A, et al. Efficacy of coronary stenting in the management of cardiac allograft vasculopathy. Am J Cardiol. 1998 Jul 15;82(2):239-41. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(98)00295-1
- Jain SP, Ramee SR, White CJ, et al. Coronary stenting in cardiac allograft vasculopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998 Nov 15;32(6):1636-40. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(98)00432-x
- Lee MS, Kobashigawa J, Tobis J. Comparison of percutaneous coronary intervention with bare-metal and drug-eluting stents for cardiac allograft vasculopathy. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2008 Dec;1(6):710-5. doi: 10.1016/j.jcin.2008.10.001
- Lee MS, Lluri G, Finch W, Park KW. Role of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in the Treatment of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2018 May 1;121(9):1051-5. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.01.025
- Rizvi SSA, Luc JGY, Choi JH, et al. Outcomes and survival following heart retransplantation for cardiac allograft failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Cardiothorac Surg. 2018 Jan;7(1):12-8. doi: 10.21037/acs.2018.01.09
- Lund LH, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY, et al. The registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty first official adult heart transplant report--2014; focus theme: retransplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2014 Oct;33(10):996-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2014.08.003
- Goldraich LA, Stehlik J, Kucheryavaya AY, Edwards LB, Ross HJ. Retransplant and Medical Therapy for Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy: International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation Registry Analysis. Am J Transplant. 2016 Jan;16(1):301-9. doi: 10.1111/ajt.13418
- Alba AC, Fan CS, Manlhiot C, Dipchand AI, Stehlik J, Ross HJ. The evolving risk of sudden cardiac death after heart transplant. An analysis of the ISHLT Thoracic Transplant Registry. Clin Transplant. 2019 Mar;33(3):
e13490 . doi: 10.1111/ctr.13490 - Tsai VW, Cooper J, Garan H, et al. The efficacy of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in heart transplant recipients: results from a multicenter registry. Circ Heart Fail. 2009 May;2(3):197-201. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.108.814525
- Mehra MR, Crespo-Leiro MG, Dipchand A, et al. International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation working formulation of a standardized nomenclature for cardiac allograft vasculopathy 2010. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010 Jul;29(7):717-27. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2010.05.017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14797/mdcvj.1580 | Journal eISSN: 1947-6108
Language: English
Page range: 58 - 71
Submitted on: Feb 7, 2025
Accepted on: Apr 12, 2025
Published on: May 15, 2025
Published by: Houston Methodist DeBakey Heart & Vascular Center
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Keywords:
© 2025 Colin T. Stomberski, Monica M. Colvin, published by Houston Methodist DeBakey Heart & Vascular Center
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License.