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Pollution Indices as Tools for Evaluation of the Accumulation and Military Activities on the Molotov Line During WWII Still Detectable in the Chemical Record of Soils in Roztocze (Se Poland) Cover

Pollution Indices as Tools for Evaluation of the Accumulation and Military Activities on the Molotov Line During WWII Still Detectable in the Chemical Record of Soils in Roztocze (Se Poland)

Quaestiones Geographicae
Volume 45 (2026): Issue 1 (March 2026)
By: ,  ,  ,  ,   and    
Open Access
|Mar 2026
Figures & tables

Figures & Tables

Fig. 1.

Location of the study area (background map source: WMS and WMTS viewing services, Central Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Poland).

Fig. 2.

Selected bunkers of the Rava-Russkaia Fortified Region of the Molotov Line. A – Bunker No. 1 – tourists visiting a bunker on the Molotov Line, B – Front wall of unfinished bunker No. 2, C – Bunker No. 3 damaged by shelling and experimental explosion (photo by G. Gajek).

Table 1.

Basic physicochemical properties of studied soils.

ParameterUnitMeanMedianMinMaxSD
Bunker No. 1
pH (H2O)–4.74.23.57.51.3
Sand (grain diameters 2–0.05 mm)%93.193.289.097.12.2
Silt (grain diameters 0.05–0.002 mm)6.86.73.010.02.0
Clay (grain diameters <0.002 mm)0.10.00.00.80.2
Total organic carbon TOCg · kg-113.012.05.034.00.8
Hydrolytic acidity HAcmol(+) · kg-14.44.10.811.22.4
Base exchange capacity BEC5.14.02.016.73.7
Effective cation exchange capacity ECEC9.59.15.120.24.1
0–20 cm
Bimg · kg-14.94.80.04.9–
Cd0.30.20.11.00.2
Cr11.18.90.030.69.5
Cu4.33.60.616.03.5
Mn94.772.715.1337.679.3
Ni7.05.40.021.56.5
Pb16.29.71.8143.029.3
Zn26.420.28.598.420.2
20–40 cm
Bimg · kg-1–––––
Cd0.30.20.11.40.3
Cr11.08.50.338.511.5
Cu3.42.00.66.34.5
Mn163.1182.414.4320.195.5
Ni10.66.51.238.512.1
Pb4.24.31.28.92.1
Zn15.211.63.737.19.1
Bunker No. 2
pH (H2O)–4.33.93.57.21.0
Sand (grain diameters 2–0.05 mm)%94.794.288.099.93.7
Silt (grain diameters 0.05–0.002 mm)4.95.60.011.63.8
Clay (grain diameters <0.002 mm)0.10.10.00.50.2
Total organic carbon TOCg · kg-116.016.03.049.01.2
Hydrolytic acidity HAcmol(+) · kg-14.13.60.911.72.4
Base exchange capacity BEC2.71.80.59.92.4
Effective cation exchange capacity ECEC6.45.92.313.83.3
0–20 cm
Bimg · kg-15.34.61.820.05.0
Cd0.30.20.11.00.2
Cr33.033.618.544.27.9
Cu3.32.31.19.82.3
Mn102.336.612.1533.9137.1
Ni15.916.110.323.43.2
Pb13.312.24.235.86.8
Zn25.520.813.070.113.0
20–40 cm
Bimg · kg-14.53.80.08.22.1
Cd0.20.10.00.50.1
Cr32.134.518.942.97.7
Cu1.81.30.07.21.6
Mn97.672.57.8447.2104.1
Ni14.814.710.422.93.0
Pb3.93.11.311.12.6
Zn12.810.63.530.37.4
Bunker No. 3
pH (H2O)–4.33.93.67.81.1
Sand (grain diameters 2–0.05 mm)%80.179.871.490.05.7
Silt (grain diameters 0.05–0.002 mm)18.819.19.427.25.5
Clay (grain diameters <0.002 mm)1.11.20.31.40.3
Total organic carbon TOCg · kg-19.06.02.028.01.8
Hydrolytic acidity HAcmol(+) · kg-14.23.41.59.62.2
Base exchange capacity BEC3.91.10.329.07.4
Effective cation exchange capacity ECEC8.14.72.738.68.7
0-20 cm
Bimg · kg-16.25.20.011.73.8
Cd0.20.10.01.30.3
Cr15.114.111.834.54.9
Cu1.40.90.09.02.1
Mn26.411.76.1130.133.9
Ni9.48.77.219.02.6
Pb5.24.30.610.62.6
Zn12.011.52.944.19.1
20-40 cm
Bimg · kg-10.60.20.010.02.2
Cd0.20.10.01.00.2
Cr15.315.211.223.72.7
Cu0.60.20.05.51.3
Mn59.338.66.0186.454.6
Ni9.39.47.315.71.9
Pb2.72.30.78.31.6
Zn8.27.01.729.95.9
Fig. 3.

Pollution index PI values calculated from the content of selected trace metals TMs in the 0–20 cm horizon; A – Degree of contamination (CD); B – Pollution load index (PLI); C – Potential ecological risk (RI) (background map source: WMS and WMTS viewing services, Central Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Poland).

Fig. 4.

Pollution index PI values calculated from the content of selected trace metals TMs in the 20-40 cm horizon; A – Degree of contamination (CD); B – Pollution load index (PLI); C – Potential ecological risk (RI) (background map source: WMS and WMTS viewing services, Central Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Poland).

Table 2.

Igeo of bunker No. 2.

Depth Sample number*ZnMnCuNiCdCrPb
0–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–40
[cm]
2\0\01.09–1.791.64–1.890.38–3.701.961.430.43–2.912.802.501.41–2.17
2\N\10–0.74–2.20–2.95–4.06–2.15–4.641.481.07–2.12–3.682.832.05–0.35–2.55
2\N\20–1.32–1.88–3.82–2.03–2.02–4.641.201.22–2.47–2.442.272.56–1.46–1.19
2\N\30–0.67–0.23–1.911.39–1.61–1.560.781.03–2.51–1.561.631.83–0.75–0.45
2\N\40–0.69–0.82–2.15–0.34–2.19–2.760.940.93–2.64–2.441.661.74–0.09–2.06
2\N\50–0.45–0.92–1.98–1.10–1.69–2.410.980.79–1.99–3.181.751.660.05–2.38
2\W\10–0.29–1.84–2.43–2.10–1.03–3.220.850.84–0.81–2.032.201.67–0.34–3.14
2\W\20–0.03–1.661.23–0.14–2.74–2.471.361.12–1.54–2.902.442.320.47–2.48
2\W\30–0.78–1.60–3.09–0.71–0.98–2.331.401.15–2.90–3.912.502.63–0.04–1.07
2\W\400.44–1.66–2.570.79–0.08–2.551.361.44–3.22–2.352.622.76–0.25–2.34
2\W\50–1.03–1.170.60–1.39–2.79–1.951.661.52–1.92–3.912.722.58–1.67–0.29
2\S\100.07–1.46–3.73–1.82–2.17–3.271.401.50–2.21–3.172.842.80–0.93–2.29
2\S\200.20–0.12–2.30–0.63–0.53–1.001.491.50–2.08–2.922.592.60–0.16–1.37
2\S\30–1.06–1.19–1.04–0.51–2.00–3.131.461.48–3.73–2.442.452.840.09–3.40
2\S\40–0.83–1.43–0.02–0.44–1.81–3.261.521.48–1.95–2.922.562.55–0.51–2.02
2\S\50–0.82–0.46–0.36–0.06–1.72–1.741.611.62–2.45–1.442.612.60–0.13–2.07
2\E\10–0.66–3.24–3.60–4.19–2.33–3.931.461.33–2.33–3.912.452.47–0.14–3.35
2\E\20–1.26–2.89–2.92–4.46–2.21–4.641.421.24–3.13–3.642.352.30–0.44–1.77
2\E\30–1.35–1.82–3.39–3.88–1.43–4.641.431.27–1.39–2.802.752.590.66–2.09
2\E\40–0.47–3.06–3.14–3.63–1.28–2.011.491.32–1.45–2.402.472.480.60–2.31
2\E\50–0.47–0.92–0.35–1.03–0.31–0.061.851.93–0.05–0.482.882.770.47–1.12
UnpollutedUnpolluted to moderately pollutedModerately pollutedModerately to strongly polluted

1* Sample number explanation – 2 (bunker number)\N (direction)\40 (distance from the bunker in metres).

Table 3.

Igeo of bunker No. 1.

Depth Sample number*ZnMnCuNiCdCrPb
0–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–40
[cm]
1\0\01.58–0.55–0.02–2.160.02–3.69–2.90–2.91–0.07–2.20–4.32–4.320.62–1.33
1\N\10–0.78–1.42–2.610.09–1.26–1.40–2.91–2.91–1.79–1.17–4.32–4.28–0.44–1.67
1\N\20–0.88–1.08–.320.82–1.07–0.76–2.91–2.36–1.78–1.71–4.32–4.32–0.39–0.82
1\N\30–1.28–0.15–0.730.90–1.500.23–2.911.46–1.870.23–4.320.57–0.88–1.09
1\N\40–1.21–1.51–1.760.23–1.52–1.83–2.91–2.91–1.99–1.18–4.32–4.32–0.48–2.57
1\N\50–1.53–1.96–1.490.19–1.93–3.51–0.43–0.35–2.06–1.930.120.09–0.35–2.91
1\W\10–0.66–3.16–3.22–2.43–1.77–2.39–0.53–0.40–1.69–2.450.350.21–0.33–3.47
1\W\200.00–2.04–1.41–2.40–0.58–1.890.330.16–0.78–1.560.720.51–0.49–2.56
1\W\300.10–1.71–0.64–0.250.13–1.150.700.14–0.44–1.181.240.74–0.04–1.61
1\W\40–0.94–1.25–1.940.56–0.96–1.270.010.11–1.34–1.070.580.50–0.39–1.24
1\W\500.740.170.980.711.091.501.842.680.450.852.352.680.21–0.60
1\S\100.18–1.67–0.400.510.01–2.29–2.91–2.91–1.18–2.70–4.20–4.323.41–1.52
1\S\20–0.70–1.01–0.420.47–1.21–1.80–2.91–2.91–2.21–2.40–4.32–4.320.26–1.35
1\S\30–1.78–1.49–2.28–0.13–2.39–2.50–2.91–2.91–3.08–2.72–4.32–4.32–1.10–2.01
1\S\40–1.15–1.94–2.39–0.72–2.10–2.31–2.91–2.91–2.95–3.30–4.32–4.32–0.80–2.14
1\S\50–1.38–0.34–0.94–0.76–2.54–1.32–2.91–2.91–2.84–2.93–4.32–4.32–0.68–2.76
1\E\10–0.210.00–2.400.35–0.87–0.56–2.91–2.91–2.25–1.63–4.32–4.32–0.93–1.03
1\E\20–0.50–1.64–1.23–2.46–0.81–2.48–2.91–2.91–2.21–2.80–4.32–4.32–0.43–4.75
1\E\300.30–1.680.08–0.30–0.08–2.44–1.83–2.91–1.44–1.92–4.32–4.32–0.80–1.55
1\E\40–0.40–1.61–3.270.24–0.93–2.33–2.91–2.91–2.79–3.46–4.32–4.32–0.66–3.01
1\E\50–1.85–1.96–3.51–3.57–3.08–2.23–2.91–2.91–2.93–3.91–4.32–4.32–1.31–2.23
UnpollutedUnpolluted to moderately pollutedModerately pollutedModerately to strongly pollutedHighly polluted

1* Sample number explanation – 1 (bunker number)\N (direction)\40 (distance from the bunker in metres).

Table 4.

Igeo of bunker No. 3.

Depth Sample number*ZnMnCuNicdCrPb
0-2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–400–2020–40
[cm]
3\0\0–0.24–2.65–1.24–0.78–2.15–4.641.080.84–1.38–2.531.821.54–0.29–1.96
3\N\10–1.14–2.01–2.93–0.94–1.82–4.640.990.96–2.35–2.801.571.58–1.86–3.00
3\N\20–0.94–1.50–3.77–0.31–0.69–1.630.780.71–2.19–3.141.341.31–0.34–2.75
3\N\30–3.15–3.33–4.49–1.63–4.64–4.640.390.42–3.00–2.961.031.06–2.07–2.31
3\N\40–2.25–3.28–4.13–2.51–4.64–4.640.410.62–2.84–3.821.081.22–1.73–2.65
3\N\50–3.13–2.49–3.62–4.40–3.17–4.390.610.68–3.10–2.901.311.22–1.86–2.42
3\W\10–2.40–2.83–4.09–2.17–2.99–4.640.760.70–2.37–1.171.211.25–1.44–2.31
3\W\20–1.44–2.94–4.13–3.88–3.03–2.750.460.40–1.11–0.751.301.47–1.58–2.79
3\W\30–1.24–2.53–4.36–3.93–2.44–4.640.460.28–2.28–1.941.161.08–0.64–3.14
3\W\40–2.00–2.00–4.82–4.31–4.64–4.640.270.35–1.76–0.691.061.37–1.94–2.25
3\W\50–0.98–2.40–4.47–4.14–4.64–4.640.260.54–1.55–1.121.331.55–1.98–2.21
3\S\10–0.81–2.19–0.39–1.25–1.44–4.640.680.43–0.72–2.171.061.02–0.73–2.67
3\S\20–1.45–3.82–4.23–2.13–2.12–4.640.470.28–2.83–3.191.111.02–2.20–3.45
3\S\30–3.16–1.80–3.96–1.07–4.64–4.640.310.33–3.91–1.171.051.37–1.88–3.05
3\S\40–3.51–4.28–2.16–4.82–3.81–4.640.420.41–2.93–3.911.081.24–4.52–4.25
3\S\50–2.40–2.27–4.22–2.64–4.64–4.640.450.37–2.92–2.490.980.90–1.42–1.15
3\E\100.42–0.14–0.64–0.350.27–0.451.661.390.820.392.521.98–0.43–0.71
3\E\20–1.51–1.56–3.28–0.88–4.64–4.640.760.71–2.60–3.911.421.41–0.64–2.20
3\E\30–2.00–2.00–3.570.12–4.64–3.190.650.68–3.91–2.591.261.35–1.51–2.95
3\E\40–1.52–1.54–2.11–4.61–2.68–2.780.670.67–3.91–3.781.291.34–1.94–2.41
3\E\50–1.02–1.84–2.07–0.12–1.88–2.310.900.86–2.97–2.851.541.47–1.30–1.88
UnpollutedUnpolluted to moderately pollutedModerately pollutedModerately to strongly polluted

1* Sample number explanation – 3 (bunker number)\N (direction)\40 (distance from the bunker in metres).

Table 5.

PCA results for bunkers. Principal components as groups of similar origin. Numbers in columns are influence of each data on the given principal component.

ParameterGroup 1 (first principal component)Group 2 (second principal component)Group 3 (third principal component)Group 4 (fourth principal component)
Cu-0.856110.3061890.096109-0.242390
Ni-0.54351-0.822840-0.103110-0.023880
Cd-0.857120.1271190.246373-0.129310
Cr-0.48870-0.841140-0.179290-0.055030
Pb-0.388420.415467-0.8186400.007732
Zn-0.829960.2986410.110614-0.154310
Mn-0.746620.1044190.1023100.647287
Partial variation [%]48.625.211.57.5
Summarised variation [%]48.673.885.392.8
Fig. 5.

Dendrogram created for all bunkers using trace metals (TMs).

Fig. 6.

Ternary plot Cu, Pb and Zn (bunker No. 1 – grey points; bunker No. 2 – blue points and bunker No. 3 – orange points).

Fig. 7.

Land use changes within the surveyed military sites in 1923, 1954 and 2012 (background map source: WMS and WMTS viewing services, Central Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Poland).

DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/quageo-2026-0002 | Journal eISSN: 2081-6383 | Journal ISSN: 2082-2103 (formerly 0137-477X)
Journal RSS Feed
Language: English
Page range: 19 - 38
Submitted on: Aug 1, 2024
Published on: Mar 23, 2026
Published by: Adam Mickiewicz University
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Keywords:
soil contamination,
trace metals in soils,
military pollution,
environmental remediation,
Technosols,
SUITMA
Related subjects:
Geosciences,
Geography

© 2026 Andrzej Plak, Grzegorz Gajek, Małgorzata Telecka, Paulina Hałas, Małgorzata Bis, Tomasz Szafran, published by Adam Mickiewicz University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 45 (2026): Issue 1 (March 2026)
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