Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Human Agency and Epistemic Authority Under Generative Artificial Intelligence Cover

Human Agency and Epistemic Authority Under Generative Artificial Intelligence

Open Access
|Aug 2026

References

  1. Ahmad, S. F., Han, H., Alam, M. M., Rehmat, M. K., Irshad, M., Arraño-Muñoz, M., & Ariza-Montes, A. (2023). Impact of artificial intelligence on human loss in decision making, laziness and safety in education. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(311). 10.1057/s41599-023-01787-8
  2. Amrit, P., & Singh, A. K. (2022). Survey on Watermarking Methods in the Artificial Intelligence domain and beyond. Computer Communications, 188, 5265. 10.1016/j.comcom.2022.02.023
  3. Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2). 10.19173/irrodl.v4i2.149
  4. Anderson, T. (2008). Towards a theory of online learning. In T. Anderson (Ed.), Theory and Practice of Online Learning (pp. 109119). AU Press. 10.15215/aupress/9781897425084.004
  5. Anderson, T., & Bozkurt, A. (2025). A critically informed conversation with Terry Anderson: Visions on the next generation of online and distance education. Open Praxis, 17(4), 830835. 10.55982/openpraxis.17.4.976
  6. Barba, L. A., & Stegner, L. (2026). The conversational exam: a scalable assessment design for the ai era. arXiv:2601.10691. 10.48550/arXiv.2601.10691
  7. Bozkurt, A. (2019). Intellectual roots of distance education: a progressive knowledge domain analysis. Distance Education, 40(4), 497514. 10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894
  8. Bozkurt, A. (2023). Unleashing the Potential of Generative AI, Conversational Agents and Chatbots in Educational Praxis: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis of GenAI in Education. Open Praxis, 15(4), 261270. 10.55982/openpraxis15.4.609
  9. Bozkurt, A. (2024). Why Generative AI Literacy, Why Now and Why it Matters in the Educational Landscape? Kings, Queens and GenAI Dragons. Open Praxis, 16(3), 283290. 10.55982/openpraxis.16.3.739
  10. Elek, A., Yildiz, H. S., Akca, B., Oren, N. C., & Gundogdu, B. (2025). Evaluating the efficacy of perplexity scores in distinguishing ai-generated and human-written abstracts. Academic Radiology, 32(4), 17851790. 10.1016/j.acra.2025.01.017
  11. Floridi, L. (2023). AI as agency without intelligence: on chatgpt, large language models, and other generative models. Philosophy & Technology, 36, 15. 10.1007/s13347-023-00621-y
  12. Fraser, K. C., Dawkins, H., & Kiritchenko, S. (2025). Detecting AI-generated text: Factors influencing detectability with current methods. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 82, 22332278. 10.1613/jair.1.16665
  13. Furze, L., Perkins, M., Roe, J., & MacVaugh, J. (2024). The AI Assessment Scale (AIAS) in action: A pilot implementation of GenAI-supported assessment. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 40(4). 10.14742/ajet.9434
  14. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2), 87105. 10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6
  15. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 723. 10.1080/08923640109527071
  16. Gerlich, M. (2025). AI Tools in Society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking. Societies, 15(1), 6. 10.3390/soc15010006
  17. Giray, L. (2024). The Problem with false positives: AI detection unfairly accuses scholars of AI plagiarism. The Serials Librarian, 85. 10.1080/0361526X.2024.2433256
  18. Gotoman, J. E. J., Luna, H. L. T., Sangria, J. C. S., Santiago, C. S., Jr., & Barbuco, D. D. (2025). Accuracy and reliability of AI-generated text detection tools: A literature review. American Journal of IR 4.0 and Beyond, 4(1), 19. 10.54536/ajirb.v4i1.3795
  19. İlikhan, S., Özer, M., Perc, M., Tanberkan, H., & Ayhan, Y. (2025). Complementary use of artificial intelligence in healthcare. Medical Journal of Western Black Sea, 9(1), 717. 10.29058/mjwbs.1620035
  20. İlikhan, S., Özer, M., Tanberkan, H., & Bozkurt, V. (2024). How to mitigate the risks of deployment of artificial intelligence in medicine? Turkish Journal of Medical Science, 54(3), 483492. 10.55730/1300-0144.5814
  21. Kar, S. K., Bansal, T., Modi, S., & Singh, A. (2025). How sensitive are the free AI-detector tools in detecting AI-generated texts? A comparison of popular AI-detector tools. Indian journal of Psychological Medicine, 47(3), 275278. 10.1177/02537176241247934
  22. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2005). What happens when teachers design educational technology? The development of technological pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(2), 131152. 10.2190/0ew7-01wb-bkhl-qdyv
  23. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 6070. https://www.learntechlib.org/d/29544/
  24. Kosmyna, N., Hauptmann, E., Yuan, Y. T., Situ, J., Liao, X., Beresnitzky, A. V., Braounstein, I., & Maes, P. (2025). Your brain on ChatGPT: Accumulation of cognitive debt when using an AI assistant for an essay writing task. arXiv:2506.08872. 10.48550/arXiv.2506.08872
  25. Kusal, S., Patil, S., Kotecha, K., Aluvalu, R., & Varadarajan, V. (2021). AI-Based emotion detection for textual big data: techniques and contribution. Big Data and Cognitive Computing, 5(3), 43. 10.3390/bdcc5030043
  26. Legaspi, J. B., Licuben, R. J. O., Legaspi, E. A., & Tolentino, J. A. (2024). Comparing AI detectors: evaluating performance and efficiency. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 12(2), 833838. 10.30574/ijsra.2024.12.2.1276
  27. Mishra, P., & Bozkurt, A. (2026). TPACK in the age of context and artificial intelligence: Punya Mishra on the “Wicked Problem” of AI and why algorithms can’t replace context. Open Praxis, 18(2), 398407. 10.55982/openpraxis.18.2.1093
  28. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 108(6), 10171054. 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x
  29. O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increase Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Crown Books.
  30. Quattrociocchi, W., Capraro, V., & Perc, M. (2026). Epistemological Fault Lines Between Human and Artificial Intelligence. arXiv: 2512.19466. 10.31234/osf.io/c5gh8_v1
  31. Özer, M. (2024a). Potential benefits and risks of artificial intelligence in education. Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education, 13(2), 232244. 10.14686/buefad.1416087
  32. Özer, M. (2024b). Impact of ChatCPT on scientific writing. İnsan ve Toplum Dergisi, 14(3), 210217. 10.12658/E0002
  33. Özer, M. (2024c). Is artificial intelligence hallucinating? Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 35(4), 333335. 10.5080/u27587
  34. Özer, M. (2025a). The epistemic crisis of artificial intelligence in the context of Nafs al-Amr. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 72, 254264. 10.26650/JECS2025-1780354
  35. Özer, M. (2025b). Can mathematical models be weapons of mass destruction? Reflektif Journal of Social Sciences, 6(1), 259268. 10.47613/reflektif.2025.212
  36. Özer, M., & Perc, M. (2024). Human complementation must aid automation to mitigate the unemployment effects due to AI technologies in the labor market. Reflektif Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2), 503514. 10.47613/reflektif.2024.176
  37. Özer, M., & Perc, M. (2025). Creative alineation in art due to artificial intelligence. Reflektif Journal of Social Sciences, 6(3), 11051118. 10.47613/reflektif.2025.258
  38. Özer, M., Perc, M., & Suna, H. E. (2024a). Artificial intelligence bias and the amplification of inequalities in the labor market. Journal of Economy, Culture and Society, 69, 159168. 10.26650/JECS2023-1415085
  39. Özer, M., Perc, M., & Suna, H. E. (2024b). Participatory management can help AI ethics adhere to the social consensus. Istanbul University Journal of Sociology, 44(1), 221238. 10.26650/SJ.2024.44.1.0001
  40. Özer, M., Tanberkan, H., & Perc, M. (2025). Artificial intelligence threatens critical thinking in education systems. Journal of Higher Education and Science, 15(2), 157164. 10.5961/higheredusci.1747885
  41. Pavlik, J. V. (2023). Collaborating with ChatGPT: considering the implications of generative artificial intelligence for journalism and media education. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 78(1), 8493. 10.1177/10776958221149577
  42. Perc, M., & Özer, M. (2025). Disappearing minds in the age of artificial intelligence. İnsan ve Toplum Dergisi, 15(3), 19. 10.12658/E0004
  43. Perkins, M., Furze, L., Roe, J., MacVaugh, J. (2024). The Artificial Intelligence Assessment Scale (AIAS): A framework for ethical integration of generative AI in educational assessment. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 21(6). 10.53761/q3azde36
  44. Rashidi, H. H., Fennell, B. D., Albahra, S., Hu, B., & Gorbett, T. (2023). The ChatGPT conundrum: Human-generated scientific manuscripts misidentified as AI creations by AI text detection tool. Journal of Pathology Informatics, 14, 100342. 10.1016/j.jpi.2023.100342
  45. Roe, J., Perkins, M., & Giray, L. (2025). Assessment Twins: A protocol For AI-Vulnerable summative assessment. arXiv:2510.02929. 10.48550/arXiv.2510.02929
  46. Shamsi, A., Wang, T., Amraei, M., & Raju, N. V. (2026). Evaluating AI text detection tools for distinguishing human-written from AI-generated abstracts in Persian language journals of library and information science. Acta Informatica Pragensia, 15(1), 126134. 10.18267/j.aip.293
  47. Stadler, M., Bannert, M., & Sailer, M. (2024). Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry. Computers in Human Behavior, 160. 10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386
  48. Stenbom, S., Garrison, D. R., & Bozkurt, A. (2026). Augmenting inquiry, preserving the core: Stenbom and Garrison on AI’s role and human-centered learning within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework. Open Praxis, 18(1), 181191. 10.55982/openpraxis.18.1.1042
  49. Subramaniam, R. (2023). Identifying text classification failures in multilingual AI-Generated content. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence & Applications, 14(5), 5763. 10.5121/ijaia.2023.14505
  50. Suna, H., & Özer, M. (2026). Assessment in higher education in the era of generative AI: A mediator for new opportunities and unique challenges. In Reimagining Curriculum and Assessment in the Age of Generative AI, p.241273. IGI Global Scientific Publishing. 10.4018/979-8-3373-7579-3.ch008
  51. Suna, H. E., & Özer, M. (2025). The human complimentary usage of AI and ML for fair and unbiased educational assessments. Chinese/English Journal of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, 6(1), 121. 10.59863/YPKL4338
  52. Tanberkan, H., Özer, M., & Gelbal, S. (2024). Impact of artificial intelligence on assessment and evaluation approaches in education. International Journal of Educational Studies and Policy, 5(2), 139152. 10.5281/zenodo.14016103
  53. Thorp, H. H. (2023). ChatGPT is fun, but not an author. Science, 379(6630), 313. 10.1126/science.adg7879
  54. Xu, Z., & Sheng, V. S. (2024). Detecting AI-Generated Code Assignments Using Perplexity of Large Language Models. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 38(21), 2315523162. 10.1609/aaai.v38i21.30361
Language: English
Page range: 495 - 505
Submitted on: Jan 30, 2026
Accepted on: Jun 10, 2026
Published on: Aug 4, 2026
Published by: International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2026 Mahmut Özer, Matjaž Perc, Hande Tanberkan Özçelik, published by International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.